A global review of the invasive aquatic weed Cabomba caroliniana [A. Gray] (Carolina fanwort) : current and future management challenges, and research gaps
- Authors: Roberts, Jason , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Weed Research Vol. 62, no. 1 (2022), p. 75-84
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- Description: Cabomba caroliniana [A. Gray] (Cabombaceae), also known as Carolina fanwort, is a native of South America which has now become a serious invasive threat to aquatic systems across the world. Its capacity to inundate a water column with active fragments and seeds makes the containment and management of C. caroliniana a challenging task and an ecological and economic necessity. Previous and current management efforts have been largely focussed on biological control, drawdown methods, herbicide application, manual removal, shading and the use of a concentrated urea solution. Although these methods have shown some success in reducing large infestations, they are generally considered to be unreliable when used alone since they are unable to contain or reduce the species in the long term with a single-use treatment protocol. It is feared that, without effective, improved and integrated management strategies, C. caroliniana will continue to invade aquatic ecosystems beyond its already wide current distribution, thus causing increased global economic and environmental damage. This review will therefore explore the biology and distribution of C. caroliniana and examine the current and previous attempts for its global management. It will also evaluate the most successful current treatments and clarify where research efforts are urgently needed for the improved long-term extirpation of this aquatic invader. © 2021 European Weed Research Society
A review of the biology, distribution patterns and management of the invasive species Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson (Palmer amaranth) : current and future management challenges
- Authors: Roberts, Jason , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Weed Research Vol. 62, no. 2 (2022), p. 113-122
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- Description: Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson (Palmer amaranth) is an invasive agricultural weed that has quickly risen from a state of relative obscurity to now being globally regarded as one of the most economically destructive and difficult to manage weed species. It is now found in more than 45 countries where it poses a serious threat to agricultural production systems. Amaranthus palmeri is known to aggressively compete against crop plants for resources such as light, space, nutrients and soil moisture, all of which can result in significant crop yield reduction or even lead to crop failure. It has also been reported that A. palmeri is highly prone to evolve herbicide resistance; this makes management exceedingly challenging. Whilst there have been several control approaches introduced to manage the spread and impact of A. palmeri, many of them require more specific and focused research for their successful local and widespread application. In this regard, this global review explores the species’ biology and global distribution patterns, together with previous and current management strategies. It also explores and identifies promising areas of research that still require further investigation to more confidently assist in the control and containment of this globally concerning weed. © 2021 European Weed Research Society.
Biology, distribution and management of the globally invasive weed Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav (silverleaf nightshade): A global review of current and future management challenges
- Authors: Roberts, Jason , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Weed Research Vol. 62, no. 6 (2022), p. 393-403
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- Description: Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav (silverleaf nightshade) is a deep-rooted, multi-stemmed, perennial, herbaceous woody plant that has been observed to threaten agricultural and native biodiversity worldwide. It is widely agreed that without efficient integrated management, S. elaeagnifolium will continue to cause significant economic and environmental damage across multiple scales. It is estimated that the annual economic impact of S. elaeagnifolium in Australia exceeds AUD $62 million, with this figure likely to be much higher in other countries invaded by this plant. It can also tolerate a high level of abiotic stress and survive in a range of temperatures (below freezing point to 34°C) and areas with an average yearly rainfall between 250 and 600 mm. Its extensive deep taproot system is capable of regenerating asexually and with its many seed dispersal mechanisms; it can quickly spread and establish itself within a region. This makes containment and management of the species especially challenging. Previous management has largely been focused on biological control, competition, essential oils, grazing pressure, herbicide application and manual removal. Despite the large range of available management techniques, there has been little success in the long-term control of S. elaeagnifolium, and only a handful of methods such as essential oils and herbicide application have shown reasonable success for controlling this weed. Therefore, this review aims to synthesise the identified and potentially useful approaches to control S. elaeagnifolium that have been recorded in the literature which deal with its biology, distribution and management. It also explores previous and current management techniques to ascertain the research gaps and knowledge required to assist in the effective and economically sustainable management of this invasive weed. © 2022 The Authors. Weed Research published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of European Weed Research Society.
Challenges inherent in controlling prickly pear species; a global review of the properties of Opuntia stricta, Opuntia ficus-indica and Opuntia monacantha
- Authors: Humphries, Talia , Campbell, Shane , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Plants Vol. 11, no. 23 (2022), p.
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- Description: Opuntia species (prickly pear) were deliberately introduced to many countries around the world for fruit, cochineal dye production, living fencing or as ornamentals. They are now some of the world’s most significant weeds, particularly in regions with warm and or dry climates, as they pose threats to economic and environmental assets. In addition, they can cause considerable health issues for humans and animals. Opuntia spp. have prolific reproduction abilities, being able to reproduce both vegetatively and by seed. They have generalist pollination and dispersal requirements, which promotes their establishment and spread. Opuntia stricta, O. monacantha and O. ficus-indica are the most globally widespread of the Opuntia spp. In many countries, biological control agents, particularly the cactus moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) and various cochineal insects from the Dactylopius genus, have successfully reduced land-scape scale populations. On a smaller scale, controlling these weeds by either injecting or spraying the cladodes with herbicides can provide effective control. Care must be taken during herbicide treatments as any untreated areas will regenerate. While biological control is the most cost and time effective control method for landscape-scale infestations, further research into the combined efficacy of herbicides, fire, grubbing and pre-burial techniques would be beneficial for land managers to control small-scale and establishing populations. It would also be useful to have greater knowledge of the potential seedbank longevity and seed ecology of these species so that integrated management strategies can be developed to not only deal with initial populations but also the subsequent seedling regrowth. © 2022 by the authors.
The Angiosperm Stem Hemiparasitic Genus Cassytha (Lauraceae) and its host interactions : a review
- Authors: Zhang, Hongxiang , Florentine, Singarayer , Tennakoon, Kushan
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Frontiers in Plant Science Vol. 13, no. (2022), p.
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- Description: Cassytha, also known as laurel dodder or love vine, is a stem hemiparasite of the Lauraceae family. It has long been used for medicinal purposes in many countries and has increasingly influenced agricultural and natural ecosystems by its effects on a wide range of host species. Previous studies have focused on the taxonomy and evolutionary position of different Cassytha, with the pan-tropical species Cassytha filiformis being the most widely studied. However, Cassytha–host interactions have never been reviewed, which is an essential issue related to the understanding of mechanisms underlying plant hemiparasitic and the assessment of benefits and damage caused by aerial parasitic plants. This review explores the parasitic habits, worldwide distribution, and host range of Cassytha, and examines its impacts on the biology of host plants and the overall influence of environmental changes on Cassytha–host associations. We also comment on areas of future research directions that require to better understanding Cassytha–host interactions. It appeared that some traits, such as flowering phenology, facilitated Cassytha’s widespread distribution and successful parasitism and that Cassytha preferred woody species rather than herbaceous species as a host, and preferred species from certain families as hosts, such as Fabaceae and Myrtaceae. Cassytha often decreased biomass and impacted the physiology of host species and global environmental changes seemed to intensify the negative impacts of Cassytha on their hosts. Cassytha was not only a noxious weed, but can also function as a biocontrol agent to mitigate alien plant invasion. Copyright © 2022 Zhang, Florentine and Tennakoon.
Biology, distribution and control of the invasive species Ulex europaeus (Gorse) : a global synthesis of current and future management challenges and research gaps
- Authors: Roberts, Jason , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2021
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Weed Research Vol. 61, no. 4 (2021), p. 272-281
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- Description: Ulex europaeus (Gorse) is one of the most invasive shrubs in the world, being now found in more than 50 countries where it economically and environmentally degrades the land. This highly versatile shrub can live more than 30 years and produce over 18,000 fertile seeds annually that can remain viable for over 30 years. Ulex europaeus spread is facilitated by its ability to germinate in a wide range of conditions, quick growth and maturing rate and several seed dispersal mechanisms. Despite extensive research and attempts at managing U. europaeus, current rates of control are not adequate to limit the species’ competitiveness and impact on the environment. This has resulted in the species altering soil and landscape dynamics in areas of major invasion, inhibiting the growth of agricultural and native species, creating shelter for pest species and reducing the richness of competing species at a site, all of which contribute to the economic and environmental degradation of the land. This review highlights that herbicide application is the most successful technique used to control U. europaeus, although it has shown varying success across different climatic regions. In this regard, future research should investigate the possibility of integrating a range of techniques (competition, fire management, grazing, manual removal and mycoherbicides) to increase control success and reduce any potential risk of herbicide resistance. Further research is also required on the maintenance of longer-term viable populations of biological control agents to limit the success of this invasive species. Bridging the identified research gaps will help to facilitate the improved long-term management of U. europaeus and help land managers confidently to maintain sustainable land systems. © 2021 European Weed Research Society
Biology, distribution and management of the invasive Jatropha gossypiifolia (Bellyache bush): A global review of current and future management challenges and research gaps
- Authors: Roberts, Jason , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2021
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Weed Research Vol. 61, no. 6 (2021), p. 443-453
- Full Text: false
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- Description: Jatropha gossypiifolia (Bellyache bush) is an evergreen, perennial, invasive woody shrub that globally threatens agricultural and native landscapes. The species is native to North and South America, but is currently found in over 52 countries; in many of these countries, it is listed as invasive, due to its aggressive and competitive growth. These behaviour traits are characterised by its quick flowering and seed production that make the species difficult to contain and control, as it forms dense monocultures and restricts the growth of many native and pastoral species through aggressive competition for resources, such as soil moisture and nutrients. Infestation by J. gossypiifolia results in a loss of biodiversity in the affected area and disrupts the maintenance of sustainable land systems. It has been reported that J. gossypiifolia is used in many countries as a traditional medicine to treat a range of diseases, illnesses and injuries. However, despite these claims of its positive use, J. gossypiifolia leaves, seeds and stems are highly toxic to grazing animals and humans, leading to disruption and significant increases in the cost of agricultural production through the loss of production and the instituting of necessary management efforts. Around the world, there have been various attempts to control J. gossypiifolia, but these have widely varied in their success. The most common and successful treatments to control J. gossypiifolia, including herbicide application (cut stump application), fire management and mechanical control; however, when each is applied as a single treatment, long-term success is often limited. Consequently, this review explores the biology and distribution of J. gossypiifolia, together with previous and current control attempts, and synthesises potentially useful approaches to control this noxious weed, whilst identifying areas of future research to improve effective and long-term sustainable management strategies for this noxious species. © 2021 European Weed Research Society
Biology, ecology and management of the invasive navua sedge (cyperus aromaticus) : a global review
- Authors: Shi, Boyang , Osunkoya, Olusegun , Chadha, Aakansha , Florentine, Singarayer , Dhileepan, Kunjithapatham
- Date: 2021
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Plants Vol. 10, no. 9 (2021), p.
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- Description: Navua sedge (Cyperus aromaticus (Ridley) Mattf. & Kukenth) is an invasive perennial sedge, native to tropical Africa, which is threatening many natural ecosystems and agroecosystems, especially in northern Queensland, Australia. Crop and pasture production have been impacted by Navua sedge and it is also directly causing reductions in dairy and beef production in affected regions. This review documents the biology, ecology and potential management options to minimise the spread and impact of Navua sedge. The weed reproduces both sexually (seeds) and vegetatively (via underground rhizomes). Its tiny seeds can be spread easily via wind, water, vehicles, farm machinery and animals, whilst the rhizomes assist with establishment of dense stands. The CLIMEX model (which uses distribution and climate data in native and novel ranges) indicates that in Australia, Navua sedge has the potential to spread further within Queensland and into the Northern Territory, New South Wales and Victoria. Several management strategies, including mechanical, chemical and agronomic methods, and their integration will have to be used to minimise agricultural production losses caused by Navua sedge, but most of these methods are currently either ineffective or uneconomical when used alone. Other management approaches, including biological control and mycoherbicides, are currently being explored. We conclude that a better understanding of the interaction of its physiological processes, ecological patterns and genetic diversity across a range of conditions found in the invaded and native habitats will help to contribute to and provide more effective integrated management approaches for Navua sedge. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Biology, ecology, distribution and control of the invasive weed, lactuca serriola l. (wild lettuce) : a global review
- Authors: Chadha, Aakansha , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2021
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Plants Vol. 10, no. 10 (2021), p.
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- Description: Lactuca serriola L. (wild lettuce) is a highly invasive C3 weed in many countries, including Australia, Canada, and the USA. This weed is a severe threat to agricultural systems, especially in crops grown with reduced or no‐tillage approaches, which commonly include wheat, cereals and pulses. Owing to the vertical orientation of its leaves in the north‐south plane and its root architec-ture, L. serriola can maintain high water use efficiency under drought conditions, giving it the ability to expand its range under a drying climate. Each plant can produce up to 100,000 seeds which have no primary dormancy and form a short‐term seedbank lasting up to three years. Most seedlings emerge in autumn and overwinter as a rosette, with a small flush of emergence in spring depicting staggered germination. Research into control methods for this weed has been performed, and these methods include chemical herbicides applied alone and in combination, the establishment of plant competition, tillage, mowing and bioherbicide. Herbicides can provide effective control when applied in the seedling or rosette stage; however, spring germination is difficult to control, as it skips the rosette stage. Some biotypes are now resistant to ALS inhibitor and synthetic auxins, causing concern regarding using herbicides. A dedicated integrated management plan for 3–4 years is recommended for the control of this troublesome species. This review will explore the biology, ecology, distribution, current control techniques and previous research on this weed, allowing us to make recommendations for its future research and management. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Can optimum solar radiation exposure or supplemented vitamin D intake reduce the severity of COVID-19 symptoms?
- Authors: Abraham, Joji , Dowling, Kim , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2021
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Vol. 18, no. 2 (2021), p. 1-21
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- Description: The foremost mortality-causing symptom associated with COVID-19 is acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). A significant correlation has been identified between the deficiency in vitamin D and the risk of developing ARDS. It has been suggested that if we can reduce or modify ARDS in COVID-19 patients, we may significantly reduce the severity of COVID-19 symptoms and associated mortality rates. The increased mortality of dark-skinned people, who have a reduced UV absorption capacity, may be consistent with diminished vitamin D status. The factors associated with COVID-19 mortality, such as old age, ethnicity, obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes, are all found to be linked with vitamin D deficiency. Based on this review and as a precautionary measure, it is suggested that the adoption of appropriate and safe solar exposure and vitamin D enriched foods and supplements should be considered to reduce the possible severity of COVID-19 symptoms. Safe sun exposure is deemed beneficial globally, specifically in low and middle- income countries, as there is no cost involved. It is also noted that improved solar exposure and vitamin D levels can reduce the impact of other diseases as well, thus assisting in maintaining general human well-being. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Factors affecting the global distribution of Hydrilla verticillata (L. fil.) Royle : a review
- Authors: Patrick, Anton , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2021
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Weed Research Vol. 61, no. 4 (2021), p. 253-271
- Full Text: false
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- Description: Hydrilla verticillata (Hydrocharitaceae) is a submerged freshwater flowering plant within the monotypic genus. Over the geological periods, fossils of this family and genus have shown distinct diversifications between warm and cool fluctuations with more adaptations occurring in warmer periods and suppressions during severely cold paleoclimate changes. Recently, H. verticillata has shown a wide range of adaptive plasticity, allowing successful proliferation into non-native regions, whilst also undergoing unexplained disappearance from its native localities, and this phenomenon has stimulated this inquiry. Against this somewhat complex background, particular interest for this investigation has been focussed on an understanding of which aspects of climate change have contributed towards global adaptations and distribution patterns of H. verticillata. Whilst it is recognised that some of these changes are natural, other aggravating impacts are due to anthropogenic influences. Identifying the appropriate combinations of these climatic factors (temperature, rainfall, photoperiod), in concert with environmental (water level, CO2, salinity, eutrophication), geographical (altitude, latitude) and other factors (UV-B) are necessary precursors for instituting appropriate management strategies. In this respect, control measures are needed in non-native regions and restoration of this plant in native habitats are essential for its ecologically balanced global distribution. © 2021 European Weed Research Society
Licorice (glycyrrhiza glabra) extracts-suitable pharmacological interventions for covid-19? a review
- Authors: Abraham, Joji , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2021
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Plants Vol. 10, no. 12 (2021), p.
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- Description: Even though vaccination has started against COVID-19, people should continue maintaining personal and social caution as it takes months or years to get everyone vaccinated, and we are not sure how long the vaccine remains efficacious. In order to contribute to the mitigation of COVID-19 symptoms, the pharmaceutical industry aims to develop antiviral drugs to inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 replication and produce anti-inflammatory medications that will inhibit the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which is the primary cause of mortality among the COVID-19 patients. In reference to these tasks, this article considers the properties of a medicinal plant named licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), whose phytochemicals have shown both antiviral and anti-inflammatory tendencies through previous studies. All the literature was selected through extensive search in various databases such as google scholar, Scopus, the Web of Science, and PubMed. In addition to the antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties, one of the licorice components has an autophagy-enhancing mechanism that studies have suggested to be necessary for COVID-19 treatment. Based on reviewing relevant professional and historical literature regarding the medicinal properties of licorice, it is suggested that it may be worthwhile to conduct in vitro and in vivo studies, including clinical trials with glycyrrhizic and glycyrrhetinic acids together with other flavonoids found in licorice, as there is the potentiality to provide natural interventions against COVID-19 symptoms. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Medicinal value of three agricultural weed species of the asteraceae family : a review
- Authors: Jayasundera, Mithila , Florentine, Singarayer , Tennakoon, Kushan , Chauhan, Bhagirath
- Date: 2021
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Pharmacognosy Journal Vol. 13, no. 1 (2021), p. 264-277
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- Description: Ageratum conyzoides L., Tridax procumbens L. and Bidens pilosa L. are well known plant species of the Asteraceae family that are considered weeds in intensive agriculture. These weeds are traditionally known to have medicinal properties and have been used for therapeutic treatments. However, it is only the lack of proper knowledge, awareness and screening that have limited their use in pharmaceutical sectors. This review attempts to consolidate the traditional, phytochemical and pharmacological studies that have been carried out on Ageratum conyzoides L., Tridax procumbens L. and Bidens pilosa L., which we note are widely spread throughout the world. This study was conducted through a coherent search on Ageratum conyzoides L., Tridax procumbens L. and Bidens pilosa L. with respect to traditional uses, phytochemical and pharmacological studies that have been performed on these three agricultural weeds all over the world. An exploration of reported descriptions of the potential medical importance of three agricultural weed species (A. conyzoides, T. procumbens and B. pilosa) has been presented. The present review would encourage further clinical investigations into these three plants and their extracts to more closely define the range of uses of these herbs for clinical applications. This, in turn, would give a clear understanding whether these weed species might be targeted to be conserved in a sustainable manner rather than eradicated. © 2021 Phcogj.Com. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.
Ecology, distribution and control of the invasive weed Nassella trichotoma (Nees) Hack. ex Arechav. : a global review of current and future challenges
- Authors: Humphries, Talia , Dowling, Kim , Turville, Christopher , Sinclair, Steve , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Weed Research Vol. 60, no. 6 (2020), p. 392-405
- Full Text: false
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- Description: Nassella trichotoma (serrated tussock) is a highly invasive perennial C3 weed from South America. It grows in most soil conditions, can resist fire and frost, and is unpalatable to grazing animals. Each plant can produce up to 140,000 seeds annually, and together, these characteristics make it a damaging landscape weed. It has diminished the agricultural carrying capacity of pastures in south-eastern Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, and emerging populations have now been identified in Europe and the United States, and bioclimatic models suggest its distribution could significantly expand within these regions in the near future. Research into control methods for this weed has been explored, and these include herbicides applied alone and in combination, the establishment of plant competition, the introduction of seed mitigation fencing, grazing management and exclusion zones, specific biological management and alteration of soil composition. Currently, the most effective and widely used control method is the residual herbicide flupropanate (2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropanoic acid). This review will investigate the ecology, distribution, current control techniques and past research on this species, and make recommendations for future research and management. © 2020 European Weed Research Society
Risk of post-fire metal mobilization into surface water resources : A review
- Authors: Abraham, Joji , Dowling, Kim , Florentine, Singarayer
- Date: 2017
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Science of the Total Environment Vol. 599-600, no. (2017), p. 1740-1755
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- Description: One of the significant economic benefits to communities around the world of having pristine forest catchments is the supply of substantial quantities of high quality potable water. This supports a saving of around US$ 4.1 trillion per year globally by limiting the cost of expensive drinking water treatments and provision of unnecessary infrastructure. Even low levels of contaminants specifically organics and metals in catchments when in a mobile state can reduce these economic benefits by seriously affecting the water quality. Contamination and contaminant mobility can occur through natural and anthropogenic activities including forest fires. Moderate to high intensity forest fires are able to alter soil properties and release sequestered metals from sediments, soil organic matter and fragments of vegetation. In addition, the increase in post-fire erosion rate by rainfall runoff and strong winds facilitates the rapid transport of these metals downslope and downstream. The subsequent metal deposition in distal soil and water bodies can influence surface water quality with potential impacts to the larger ecosystems inclusive of negative effects on humans. This is of substantial concern as 4 billion hectares of forest catchments provide high quality water to global communities. Redressing this problem requires quantification of the potential effects on water resources and instituting rigorous fire and environmental management plans to mitigate deleterious effects on catchment areas. This paper is a review of the current state of the art literature dealing with the risk of post-fire mobilization of the metals into surface water resources. It is intended to inform discussion on the preparation of suitable management plans and policies during and after fire events in order to maintain potable water quality in a cost-effective manner. In these times of climate fluctuation and increased incidence of fires, the need for development of new policies and management frameworks are of heighted significance. © 2017 Elsevier B.V.
Glyphosate Resistance of C-3 and C-4 Weeds under Rising Atmospheric CO2
- Authors: Fernando, Nimesha , Manalil, Sudheesh , Florentine, Singarayer , Chauhan, Bhagirath , Seneweera, Saman
- Date: 2016
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Frontiers in Plant Science Vol. 7, no. (Jun 2016), p. 1-11
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- Description: The present paper reviews current knowledge on how changes of plant metabolism under elevated CO2 concentrations (e[CO2]) can affect the development of the glyphosate resistance of C-3 and C-4 weeds. Among the chemical herbicides, glyphosate, which is a non-selective and post-emergence herbicide, is currently the most widely used herbicide in global agriculture. As a consequence, glyphosate resistant weeds, particularly in major field crops, are a widespread problem and are becoming a significant challenge to future global food production. Of particular interest here it is known that the biochemical processes involved in photosynthetic pathways of C-3 and C-4 plants are different, which may have relevance to their competitive development under changing environmental conditions. It has already been shown that plant anatomical, morphological, and physiological changes under e[CO2] can be different, based on (i) the plant's functional group, (ii) the available soil nutrients, and (iii) the governing water status. In this respect, C-3 species are likely to have a major developmental advantage under a CO2 rich atmosphere, by being able to capitalize on the overall stimulatory effect of e[CO2]. For example, many tropical weed grass species fix CO2 from the atmosphere via the C-4 photosynthetic pathway, which is a complex anatomical and biochemical variant of the C-3 pathway. Thus, based on our current knowledge of CO2 fixing, it would appear obvious that the development of a glyphosate-resistant mechanism would be easier under an e[CO2] in C-3 weeds which have a simpler photosynthetic pathway, than for C-4 weeds. However, notwithstanding this logical argument, a better understanding of the biochemical, genetic, and molecular measures by which plants develop glyphosate resistance and how e[CO2] affects these measures will be important before attempting to innovate sustainable technology to manage the glyphosate-resistant evolution of weeds under e[CO2]. Such information will be of essential in managing weed control by herbicide use, and to thus ensure an increase in global food production in the event of increased atmospheric [CO2] levels.