Apprenticeships : the problem of attractiveness and the hindrance of heterogeneity
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2023
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training and Development Vol. 27, no. 1 (2023), p. 18-38
- Full Text:
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- Description: This paper examines a question posed in 2019 in the International Journal on Training and Development: ‘How do we solve a problem like apprenticeship?’ Data sources covering a substantial number of countries are used to present findings on, and analyse, initiatives that have been implemented or that have been considered, and then to develop some analytical constructs to help address the question. Fundamental issues such as the status of vocational education and training and the status of apprenticed occupations are important, but the nature of the apprenticeship arrangements, within countries and within industries are also major factors affecting perceived attractiveness. The paper therefore argues that the heterogeneity of apprenticeship systems and arrangements is a major barrier to solving the attractiveness problem. Moreover, the heterogeneity of potential apprenticeship applicants means that marketing campaigns or other efforts to attract more, and higher quality, apprentices need to be cognisant of individuals’ backgrounds, characteristics, and aspirations. Some tentative ways of addressing these matters are presented, but the conclusion is that the topic needs large-scale research. © 2022 The Authors. International Journal of Training and Development published by Brian Towers (BRITOW) and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2023
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training and Development Vol. 27, no. 1 (2023), p. 18-38
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper examines a question posed in 2019 in the International Journal on Training and Development: ‘How do we solve a problem like apprenticeship?’ Data sources covering a substantial number of countries are used to present findings on, and analyse, initiatives that have been implemented or that have been considered, and then to develop some analytical constructs to help address the question. Fundamental issues such as the status of vocational education and training and the status of apprenticed occupations are important, but the nature of the apprenticeship arrangements, within countries and within industries are also major factors affecting perceived attractiveness. The paper therefore argues that the heterogeneity of apprenticeship systems and arrangements is a major barrier to solving the attractiveness problem. Moreover, the heterogeneity of potential apprenticeship applicants means that marketing campaigns or other efforts to attract more, and higher quality, apprentices need to be cognisant of individuals’ backgrounds, characteristics, and aspirations. Some tentative ways of addressing these matters are presented, but the conclusion is that the topic needs large-scale research. © 2022 The Authors. International Journal of Training and Development published by Brian Towers (BRITOW) and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Informal training and learning in Australian firms : the need for a new perspective
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Smith, Andrew
- Date: 2023
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training and Development Vol. 27, no. 3-4 (2023), p. 442-460
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- Description: This paper examines the use of informal training for workers, by Australian companies and other organisations. Using survey data, it reports the prevalence of informal training and also the utilisation of different types of informal training. Differences are found by employer size, particularly for the different types. By examining qualitative responses, it is found that employers' perceptions of informal training are often not those reflected in existing literature. The paper therefore argues for a new definition of informal training which is comprehensible to employers and workers alike, so that more, and more reliable, research can be undertaken. © 2023 The Authors. International Journal of Training and Development published by Brian Towers (BRITOW) and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Smith, Andrew
- Date: 2023
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training and Development Vol. 27, no. 3-4 (2023), p. 442-460
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper examines the use of informal training for workers, by Australian companies and other organisations. Using survey data, it reports the prevalence of informal training and also the utilisation of different types of informal training. Differences are found by employer size, particularly for the different types. By examining qualitative responses, it is found that employers' perceptions of informal training are often not those reflected in existing literature. The paper therefore argues for a new definition of informal training which is comprehensible to employers and workers alike, so that more, and more reliable, research can be undertaken. © 2023 The Authors. International Journal of Training and Development published by Brian Towers (BRITOW) and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Protecting us from the pandemic? Reframing the work of security officers in quarantine hotels in Australia
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Labour & Industry-a Journal of the Social and Economic Relations of Work Vol. 32, no. 3 (2022), p. 236-252
- Relation: http://purl.org/au-research/grants/arc/LP110200888
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- Description: This article examines the work and training of security officers employed by private security organisations for COVID-19 hotel quarantine contracts in Victoria, Australia. It reports on research fieldwork in the work of security officers and on analysis of training for the occupation. In March 2020, the occupation moved into the national spotlight, as the COVID-19 pandemic led to the use of hotel quarantine in Australia for travellers arriving from overseas. The employment conditions of, and inadequate training for, quarantine hotel security staff were found to be major contributors to a major COVID outbreak from July to September 2020. The article examines these developments in the light of the research findings about the nature of the security industry, particularly outsourcing and contracting issues, and the historic undervaluing of the work undertaken by security staff. These topics are especially important as security officers are increasingly used to support public security and safety.
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Labour & Industry-a Journal of the Social and Economic Relations of Work Vol. 32, no. 3 (2022), p. 236-252
- Relation: http://purl.org/au-research/grants/arc/LP110200888
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This article examines the work and training of security officers employed by private security organisations for COVID-19 hotel quarantine contracts in Victoria, Australia. It reports on research fieldwork in the work of security officers and on analysis of training for the occupation. In March 2020, the occupation moved into the national spotlight, as the COVID-19 pandemic led to the use of hotel quarantine in Australia for travellers arriving from overseas. The employment conditions of, and inadequate training for, quarantine hotel security staff were found to be major contributors to a major COVID outbreak from July to September 2020. The article examines these developments in the light of the research findings about the nature of the security industry, particularly outsourcing and contracting issues, and the historic undervaluing of the work undertaken by security staff. These topics are especially important as security officers are increasingly used to support public security and safety.
The expansion and contraction of the apprenticeship system in Australia, 1985-2020
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2021
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Vocational Education and Training Vol. 73, no. 2 (2021), p. 336-365
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- Description: This paper chronicles and analyses the expansion and contraction of the Australian apprenticeship system from 1985 to 2020. The system expanded from a small number of occupations, mainly in craft and manufacturing areas, to include many other occupations, notably in the different types of service sectors. The expansion was achieved primarily through a new type of apprenticeship, known as a traineeship, to augment the existing more traditional apprenticeships. Since 2012, the system has contracted considerably, and the participation rate of women has been affected disproportionately. The period of expansion of the system was book-ended by two major government-instigated documents, in 1985 and 2011. In 1985 a Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry into Labour Market Programs proposed the introduction of traineeships, and in 2011 an Expert Panel on Apprenticeships sought to reduce numbers through the application of specific criteria for government support, which primarily affected the occupations served by traineeships. Two sources of evidence are used to examine the expansion and contraction of the apprenticeship system: data from the national apprenticeship statistics collection maintained by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) and key government reports over the 35 years. A brief overview of COVID-19-related developments in 2020 is included. © 2021 The Vocational Aspect of Education Ltd.
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2021
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Vocational Education and Training Vol. 73, no. 2 (2021), p. 336-365
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper chronicles and analyses the expansion and contraction of the Australian apprenticeship system from 1985 to 2020. The system expanded from a small number of occupations, mainly in craft and manufacturing areas, to include many other occupations, notably in the different types of service sectors. The expansion was achieved primarily through a new type of apprenticeship, known as a traineeship, to augment the existing more traditional apprenticeships. Since 2012, the system has contracted considerably, and the participation rate of women has been affected disproportionately. The period of expansion of the system was book-ended by two major government-instigated documents, in 1985 and 2011. In 1985 a Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry into Labour Market Programs proposed the introduction of traineeships, and in 2011 an Expert Panel on Apprenticeships sought to reduce numbers through the application of specific criteria for government support, which primarily affected the occupations served by traineeships. Two sources of evidence are used to examine the expansion and contraction of the apprenticeship system: data from the national apprenticeship statistics collection maintained by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) and key government reports over the 35 years. A brief overview of COVID-19-related developments in 2020 is included. © 2021 The Vocational Aspect of Education Ltd.
Afterword : a fresh look at workplace learning for VET teachers
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training Research Vol. 18, no. 1 (2020), p. 84-92
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- Description: The expertise and professionalism of teachers is vital in vocational education and training (VET), as it is in any other education sector. As ‘dual professionals’, VET teachers need to keep abreast of their industry or discipline area as well as maintaining and improving their pedagogical skills and knowledge. VET workplaces (colleges and vocational schools) are important sites of learning for these matters. This paper draws together and analyses the findings from the other papers in this special issue, finding that VET workplaces contribute to teachers’ learning both as a part of pedagogical qualifications (in ‘teaching practice’ components) and as part of continuing professional learning. The paper draws on a previous theoretical model and the findings in the papers to propose a number of categories of workplace learning: learning that is taught, sought, wrought, caught, brought, and thought. These could be applied to any occupation. Finally, the contribution of teachers’ personal attributes to the extent and nature of their site-based learning is examined, using the data in the papers to develop further a previous model of VET teacher professionalism. © 2020, © 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training Research Vol. 18, no. 1 (2020), p. 84-92
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: The expertise and professionalism of teachers is vital in vocational education and training (VET), as it is in any other education sector. As ‘dual professionals’, VET teachers need to keep abreast of their industry or discipline area as well as maintaining and improving their pedagogical skills and knowledge. VET workplaces (colleges and vocational schools) are important sites of learning for these matters. This paper draws together and analyses the findings from the other papers in this special issue, finding that VET workplaces contribute to teachers’ learning both as a part of pedagogical qualifications (in ‘teaching practice’ components) and as part of continuing professional learning. The paper draws on a previous theoretical model and the findings in the papers to propose a number of categories of workplace learning: learning that is taught, sought, wrought, caught, brought, and thought. These could be applied to any occupation. Finally, the contribution of teachers’ personal attributes to the extent and nature of their site-based learning is examined, using the data in the papers to develop further a previous model of VET teacher professionalism. © 2020, © 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
Learning and development practitioners : identity, profession and future trajectory
- Barratt-Pugh, Llandis, Hodge, Steven, Smith, Erica
- Authors: Barratt-Pugh, Llandis , Hodge, Steven , Smith, Erica
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources Vol. 58, no. 2 (2020), p. 220-246
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- Description: The increasing focus on learning and innovation within organisations has significantly changed perceptions and practices of learning. It has also generated an increasingly diverse and growing network of learning and development practitioners (L&D), constructing an emerging identity that is critical to organisational growth. Our study of nearly 800 Australian L&D practitioners explored their working roles, relationships, and development needs, in a contested environment. Our purpose was to explore how L&D practice has changed; if a professional identity for L&D practitioners is emerging; and what development needs L&D practitioners have. The practitioner responses from this study are used to model the emerging themes of L&D practice, substantiate the emergence of a ‘quasi-professional’ identity, and indicate the imperatives that underpin professional development frameworks. This knowledge provides a foundation for reconceptualising the learning and development practitioner domain. © 2018 Australian HR Institute
- Authors: Barratt-Pugh, Llandis , Hodge, Steven , Smith, Erica
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources Vol. 58, no. 2 (2020), p. 220-246
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: The increasing focus on learning and innovation within organisations has significantly changed perceptions and practices of learning. It has also generated an increasingly diverse and growing network of learning and development practitioners (L&D), constructing an emerging identity that is critical to organisational growth. Our study of nearly 800 Australian L&D practitioners explored their working roles, relationships, and development needs, in a contested environment. Our purpose was to explore how L&D practice has changed; if a professional identity for L&D practitioners is emerging; and what development needs L&D practitioners have. The practitioner responses from this study are used to model the emerging themes of L&D practice, substantiate the emergence of a ‘quasi-professional’ identity, and indicate the imperatives that underpin professional development frameworks. This knowledge provides a foundation for reconceptualising the learning and development practitioner domain. © 2018 Australian HR Institute
Apprenticeships and ‘future work’ : are we ready?
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2019
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training and Development Vol. 23, no. 1 (2019), p. 69-88
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- Description: The paper evaluates the readiness of apprenticeship systems to cope with five major developments affecting the future of work. The institution of apprenticeship has evolved over time in all countries, gradually adapting to changes in industrial processes, the economy, the labour market and education systems. This paper suggests, however, that recent changes in the economy and the labour market, and their concomitant effects on the likely future of work, have the potential to disrupt apprenticeship systems quite radically worldwide, and/or to make them less relevant in the 21st century. The paper draws on data from recent Australian and international research projects undertaken by the author, as well as the author’s engagement in Australian government exercises to discuss the future of apprenticeships. The research found that adaptations of systems and processes were being undertaken at company level and by stakeholders such as trade union or employer peak bodies. They were less frequently apparent, however, in government policy. The paper analyses the data to produce a framework of readiness for ‘future work’, but also queries whether adaptation of apprenticeship systems is necessarily desirable in all instances. Although the presence of multiple stakeholders in the system has previously been viewed as a strength of the system, it can also make even minor changes difficult to implement. This could prove to be a major impediment to apprenticeship’s future or could be a means of preserving its essential features. © 2019 Brian Towers (BRITOW) and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
- Description: International Labour Organization, ILO with the assistance of the JP Morgan Chase Foundation.
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2019
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training and Development Vol. 23, no. 1 (2019), p. 69-88
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: The paper evaluates the readiness of apprenticeship systems to cope with five major developments affecting the future of work. The institution of apprenticeship has evolved over time in all countries, gradually adapting to changes in industrial processes, the economy, the labour market and education systems. This paper suggests, however, that recent changes in the economy and the labour market, and their concomitant effects on the likely future of work, have the potential to disrupt apprenticeship systems quite radically worldwide, and/or to make them less relevant in the 21st century. The paper draws on data from recent Australian and international research projects undertaken by the author, as well as the author’s engagement in Australian government exercises to discuss the future of apprenticeships. The research found that adaptations of systems and processes were being undertaken at company level and by stakeholders such as trade union or employer peak bodies. They were less frequently apparent, however, in government policy. The paper analyses the data to produce a framework of readiness for ‘future work’, but also queries whether adaptation of apprenticeship systems is necessarily desirable in all instances. Although the presence of multiple stakeholders in the system has previously been viewed as a strength of the system, it can also make even minor changes difficult to implement. This could prove to be a major impediment to apprenticeship’s future or could be a means of preserving its essential features. © 2019 Brian Towers (BRITOW) and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
- Description: International Labour Organization, ILO with the assistance of the JP Morgan Chase Foundation.
Employer training in Australia : Current practices and concerns
- Smith, Erica, Callan, Victor, Tuck, Jacquiline, Smith, Andy
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Callan, Victor , Tuck, Jacquiline , Smith, Andy
- Date: 2019
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training and Development Vol. 23, no. 2 (2019), p. 169-183
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- Description: This paper presents and analyses results from a research project on current trends in employer training in Australia. While the formal vocational education and training (VET) system is well-researched, the everyday training that happens in workplaces is relatively under-researched in Australia. Using some of the results of an employer survey undertaken in 2015, the paper describes and analyses employer-based training across a range of industry areas. The survey included groups of questions on a range of matters, including the reasons why employers train, and how these relate to employers' perceptions of their operating environment, and the structures they have in place to manage and organize training. Detailed data are provided about three specific forms of training: in-house training and learning; the use that employers make of external providers of training; and employers' use of nationally recognised training - training from the VET system. Finally the paper reports what managers said about the barriers to providing more training. The paper analyses the findings in relation to the literature and also identified changes over time in training practices in Australian companies. Implications for training policy and practice, as well as for future research, are identified.
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Callan, Victor , Tuck, Jacquiline , Smith, Andy
- Date: 2019
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training and Development Vol. 23, no. 2 (2019), p. 169-183
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper presents and analyses results from a research project on current trends in employer training in Australia. While the formal vocational education and training (VET) system is well-researched, the everyday training that happens in workplaces is relatively under-researched in Australia. Using some of the results of an employer survey undertaken in 2015, the paper describes and analyses employer-based training across a range of industry areas. The survey included groups of questions on a range of matters, including the reasons why employers train, and how these relate to employers' perceptions of their operating environment, and the structures they have in place to manage and organize training. Detailed data are provided about three specific forms of training: in-house training and learning; the use that employers make of external providers of training; and employers' use of nationally recognised training - training from the VET system. Finally the paper reports what managers said about the barriers to providing more training. The paper analyses the findings in relation to the literature and also identified changes over time in training practices in Australian companies. Implications for training policy and practice, as well as for future research, are identified.
Continuity and change : Employers' training practices and partnerships with training providers
- Smith, Erica, Smith, Andy, Tuck, Jacqueline, Callan, Victor
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Smith, Andy , Tuck, Jacqueline , Callan, Victor
- Date: 2017
- Type: Text , Report , Journal article
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- Description: A number of factors influence the motivations of employers to train their workforce and the ways in which they engage with the training system. This study combines a national survey and interviews with Australian employers and registered training organisations (RTOs) to provide a comprehensive picture of the way in which employers navigate the Australian training system and how partnerships with RTOs are established. The study also provides insight into how practices have evolved over the last 20 years.
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Smith, Andy , Tuck, Jacqueline , Callan, Victor
- Date: 2017
- Type: Text , Report , Journal article
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: A number of factors influence the motivations of employers to train their workforce and the ways in which they engage with the training system. This study combines a national survey and interviews with Australian employers and registered training organisations (RTOs) to provide a comprehensive picture of the way in which employers navigate the Australian training system and how partnerships with RTOs are established. The study also provides insight into how practices have evolved over the last 20 years.
Re-thinking skill through a new lens : evidence from three Australian service industries
- Smith, Erica, Teicher, Julian
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Teicher, Julian
- Date: 2017
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Education and Work Vol. 30, no. 5 (2017), p. 515-530
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- Reviewed:
- Description: The purpose of this paper is to provide another perspective on the problematic nature of the concept of skill and in particular a tendency to place a lower value on certain types of job in the service sector than those in other industries. Qualitative research was conducted in three service industries in Australia, comprising interviews with key industry stakeholders, case studies in two companies for each of four occupations, and validation by a forum of industry experts. We present evidence of the existence of substantial levels of skill in occupations which are traditionally considered low-skilled. The data are utilised to create a new model which represents factors which contribute to perceptions of skill in occupations. The analysis extends and deepens current understanding of aspects of skill, primarily, but not only, building on social construction theory to posit a new model for analysing skill. New factors are added to the analysis of skill in occupations. The project was exploratory and covered only four occupations in three industry areas. The method could be utilised in a broader-scale project. The paper is designed to contribute to debates on the nature of skill and also has policy and practical implications in the fields of human resource practice and training. © 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Teicher, Julian
- Date: 2017
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Education and Work Vol. 30, no. 5 (2017), p. 515-530
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: The purpose of this paper is to provide another perspective on the problematic nature of the concept of skill and in particular a tendency to place a lower value on certain types of job in the service sector than those in other industries. Qualitative research was conducted in three service industries in Australia, comprising interviews with key industry stakeholders, case studies in two companies for each of four occupations, and validation by a forum of industry experts. We present evidence of the existence of substantial levels of skill in occupations which are traditionally considered low-skilled. The data are utilised to create a new model which represents factors which contribute to perceptions of skill in occupations. The analysis extends and deepens current understanding of aspects of skill, primarily, but not only, building on social construction theory to posit a new model for analysing skill. New factors are added to the analysis of skill in occupations. The project was exploratory and covered only four occupations in three industry areas. The method could be utilised in a broader-scale project. The paper is designed to contribute to debates on the nature of skill and also has policy and practical implications in the fields of human resource practice and training. © 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
Apprenticeship management at national and company levels: Research based ‘good practice’ principles
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2016
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Human Resource Development: Practice, Policy & Research Vol. 1, no. 1 (2016), p. 35-52
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: HRD professionals are often involved closely with apprenticeship systems. Apprenticeships operate within companies but are almost always linked to a national apprenticeship system which provides legislation and regulation around aspects of apprenticeship. Most countries around the world have a formal apprenticeship system, although systems vary widely in their nature, their relative size and their sophistication. The paper aims to provide a contribution to both policy and practice. It draws together and analyses three pieces of research undertaken between 2007 and 2013 by the author: one international comparative study on national apprenticeship systems, and two Australian projects on the ways in which companies manage their apprentices. The paper shows how the findings about good practice in apprenticeship management can be used at both national and company levels. The international study was funded by the International Labour Organization and the World Bank, and the Australian studies were funded by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research.
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2016
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Human Resource Development: Practice, Policy & Research Vol. 1, no. 1 (2016), p. 35-52
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: HRD professionals are often involved closely with apprenticeship systems. Apprenticeships operate within companies but are almost always linked to a national apprenticeship system which provides legislation and regulation around aspects of apprenticeship. Most countries around the world have a formal apprenticeship system, although systems vary widely in their nature, their relative size and their sophistication. The paper aims to provide a contribution to both policy and practice. It draws together and analyses three pieces of research undertaken between 2007 and 2013 by the author: one international comparative study on national apprenticeship systems, and two Australian projects on the ways in which companies manage their apprentices. The paper shows how the findings about good practice in apprenticeship management can be used at both national and company levels. The international study was funded by the International Labour Organization and the World Bank, and the Australian studies were funded by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research.
Towards a model of learning and development practice
- Hodge, Steven, Smith, Erica, Barratt-Pugh, Llandis
- Authors: Hodge, Steven , Smith, Erica , Barratt-Pugh, Llandis
- Date: 2016
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Human Resource Development: Practice, Policy & Research Vol. 1, no. 2 (2016), p. 7-25
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: It is widely acknowledged that learning and development (L&D) is key to well-being, innovation andsuccess for individuals, organizations and societies (Delahaye, 2011). Learning and development practice involves application of distinctive knowledge, skills and techniques in distinctive contexts. The sheer range of contexts and kinds of expertise associated with this work produces a complex challenge to any attempt to model L&D practice. The Australian Institute of Training and Development (AITD) took up this challenge in the Australian setting. A team of researchers was engaged to produce a model of L&D practice that the organization could use to conceptualize the work of its members and refine organizational strategy in areas such as professional development services. Although there have been attempts to represent the work of L&D practitioners (e.g. the ASTD ‘Competency Model’), the research presented here focused on the Australian setting and was also guided by a commitment to recognizing the role of organizational contexts in shaping L&D practice. This focus on context distinguishes the model from others that are concerned with the expertise and attributes of individual L&D practitioners. The model presented here thus represents contexts of L&D practice as well as knowledge and skills applied within them. The article describes the research process used to develop the model, including analysis of existing models, interviews with senior L&D practitioners and a survey of practitioners. The result is a model that acknowledges the complexity of L&D practice in a contemporary environment.
- Authors: Hodge, Steven , Smith, Erica , Barratt-Pugh, Llandis
- Date: 2016
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Human Resource Development: Practice, Policy & Research Vol. 1, no. 2 (2016), p. 7-25
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: It is widely acknowledged that learning and development (L&D) is key to well-being, innovation andsuccess for individuals, organizations and societies (Delahaye, 2011). Learning and development practice involves application of distinctive knowledge, skills and techniques in distinctive contexts. The sheer range of contexts and kinds of expertise associated with this work produces a complex challenge to any attempt to model L&D practice. The Australian Institute of Training and Development (AITD) took up this challenge in the Australian setting. A team of researchers was engaged to produce a model of L&D practice that the organization could use to conceptualize the work of its members and refine organizational strategy in areas such as professional development services. Although there have been attempts to represent the work of L&D practitioners (e.g. the ASTD ‘Competency Model’), the research presented here focused on the Australian setting and was also guided by a commitment to recognizing the role of organizational contexts in shaping L&D practice. This focus on context distinguishes the model from others that are concerned with the expertise and attributes of individual L&D practitioners. The model presented here thus represents contexts of L&D practice as well as knowledge and skills applied within them. The article describes the research process used to develop the model, including analysis of existing models, interviews with senior L&D practitioners and a survey of practitioners. The result is a model that acknowledges the complexity of L&D practice in a contemporary environment.
How closely do Australian Training Package qualifications reflect the skills in occupations? An empirical investigation of seven qualifications
- Smith, Erica, Smith, Andy, Hampson, Ian, Junor, Anne
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Smith, Andy , Hampson, Ian , Junor, Anne
- Date: 2015
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training Research Vol. 13, no. 1 (2015), p. 49-63
- Relation: http://purl.org/au-research/grants/arc/LP110200888
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper uses evidence from an Australian research project into under-recognized skills in occupations, gathered through industry-level interviews and company case studies, to examine VET curricula. The project, funded by the Australian Research Council, focused on skill in jobs traditionally regarded in Australia as unskilled. As part of the project, the evidence about skill was compared with the relevant qualifications. The qualifications are contained in Training Packages, which form the basis of most formal VET training in Australia. The qualifications for the seven occupations were in three broad industry areas (manufacturing, services and property services) and had all been developed in recent decades, unlike apprenticed trades which have long-standing qualifications and curricula in Australia. The comparison exercise showed some mismatches between the skills that were found in the researched occupations and the content of the qualifications. Some of the issues are believed to have broader applicability beyond these specific occupations and qualifications and thus can provide evidence to improve the design of Training Packages themselves.
- Description: This paper uses evidence from an Australian research project into under-recognized skills in occupations, gathered through industry-level interviews and company case studies, to examine VET curricula. The project, funded by the Australian Research Council, focused on skill in jobs traditionally regarded in Australia as unskilled. As part of the project, the evidence about skill was compared with the relevant qualifications. The qualifications are contained in Training Packages, which form the basis of most formal VET training in Australia. The qualifications for the seven occupations were in three broad industry areas (manufacturing, services and property services) and had all been developed in recent decades, unlike apprenticed trades which have long-standing qualifications and curricula in Australia. The comparison exercise showed some mismatches between the skills that were found in the researched occupations and the content of the qualifications. Some of the issues are believed to have broader applicability beyond these specific occupations and qualifications and thus can provide evidence to improve the design of Training Packages themselves. © 2015 Taylor & Francis.
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Smith, Andy , Hampson, Ian , Junor, Anne
- Date: 2015
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training Research Vol. 13, no. 1 (2015), p. 49-63
- Relation: http://purl.org/au-research/grants/arc/LP110200888
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper uses evidence from an Australian research project into under-recognized skills in occupations, gathered through industry-level interviews and company case studies, to examine VET curricula. The project, funded by the Australian Research Council, focused on skill in jobs traditionally regarded in Australia as unskilled. As part of the project, the evidence about skill was compared with the relevant qualifications. The qualifications are contained in Training Packages, which form the basis of most formal VET training in Australia. The qualifications for the seven occupations were in three broad industry areas (manufacturing, services and property services) and had all been developed in recent decades, unlike apprenticed trades which have long-standing qualifications and curricula in Australia. The comparison exercise showed some mismatches between the skills that were found in the researched occupations and the content of the qualifications. Some of the issues are believed to have broader applicability beyond these specific occupations and qualifications and thus can provide evidence to improve the design of Training Packages themselves.
- Description: This paper uses evidence from an Australian research project into under-recognized skills in occupations, gathered through industry-level interviews and company case studies, to examine VET curricula. The project, funded by the Australian Research Council, focused on skill in jobs traditionally regarded in Australia as unskilled. As part of the project, the evidence about skill was compared with the relevant qualifications. The qualifications are contained in Training Packages, which form the basis of most formal VET training in Australia. The qualifications for the seven occupations were in three broad industry areas (manufacturing, services and property services) and had all been developed in recent decades, unlike apprenticed trades which have long-standing qualifications and curricula in Australia. The comparison exercise showed some mismatches between the skills that were found in the researched occupations and the content of the qualifications. Some of the issues are believed to have broader applicability beyond these specific occupations and qualifications and thus can provide evidence to improve the design of Training Packages themselves. © 2015 Taylor & Francis.
Credit transfer from VET to higher education: a pathways policy meets a roadblock.
- Smith, Erica, Kemmis, Ros Brennan
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Kemmis, Ros Brennan
- Date: 2014
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Research in Post-Compulsory Education Vol. 19, no. 2 (2014), p. 230-244
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: Higher education is increasingly available to a wider range of people, not just recent school-leavers with established academic ability. One way of encouraging this trend is to provide credit transfer into higher education (HE) qualifications for people’s prior vocational education and training (VET) studies. However, it is generally recognised that while a range of pathways have been created, the numbers of students involved in such pathways are relatively limited. This paper explores some of the reasons this might be so, using, as a case study, an analysis of a national Australian government policy initiative. The initiative, known as ‘VET FEE-HELP’, involved the introduction of student loans for fees for higher-level VET studies and was designed partly to encourage credit transfer. Availability of loans to students was on the proviso that the course in which the student enrolled had a documented pathway providing credit transfer into a higher education course. This created a climate in which VET providers actively pursued partnerships with higher education. But recently, the credit transfer requirement of the policy has been removed. The paper concludes by discussing the issues for governments in finding appropriate policy levers to increase proportions of students transferring from VET to higher education.
- Description: C1
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Kemmis, Ros Brennan
- Date: 2014
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Research in Post-Compulsory Education Vol. 19, no. 2 (2014), p. 230-244
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: Higher education is increasingly available to a wider range of people, not just recent school-leavers with established academic ability. One way of encouraging this trend is to provide credit transfer into higher education (HE) qualifications for people’s prior vocational education and training (VET) studies. However, it is generally recognised that while a range of pathways have been created, the numbers of students involved in such pathways are relatively limited. This paper explores some of the reasons this might be so, using, as a case study, an analysis of a national Australian government policy initiative. The initiative, known as ‘VET FEE-HELP’, involved the introduction of student loans for fees for higher-level VET studies and was designed partly to encourage credit transfer. Availability of loans to students was on the proviso that the course in which the student enrolled had a documented pathway providing credit transfer into a higher education course. This created a climate in which VET providers actively pursued partnerships with higher education. But recently, the credit transfer requirement of the policy has been removed. The paper concludes by discussing the issues for governments in finding appropriate policy levers to increase proportions of students transferring from VET to higher education.
- Description: C1
How can the expansion of the apprenticeship system in India create conditions for greater equity and social justice?
- Smith, Erica, Kemmis, Ros Brennan, Comyn, Paul
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Kemmis, Ros Brennan , Comyn, Paul
- Date: 2014
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Australian Journal of Adult Learning Vol. 54, no. 3 (2014), p.
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper reports on aspects of a recent project carried out for the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Bank, which was designed to feed into the process of updating and expanding India’s apprenticeship system. The apprenticeship system in India is extremely small for the country’s population, even taking into account the high proportion of jobs that are in the informal economy, and is subject to very rigid regulation. Expansion of the system has been seen as vital in order to improve the supply of skills to the rapidly expanding economy, and also to address issues of disparity in labour market participation and equity for certain groups in Indian society. The paper firstly explains how findings about apprenticeship systems from ten other countries, together with analysis of the Indian situation, were used to present options for consideration by the Indian government. It then analyses these options for their social justice and equity implications.
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Kemmis, Ros Brennan , Comyn, Paul
- Date: 2014
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Australian Journal of Adult Learning Vol. 54, no. 3 (2014), p.
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper reports on aspects of a recent project carried out for the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Bank, which was designed to feed into the process of updating and expanding India’s apprenticeship system. The apprenticeship system in India is extremely small for the country’s population, even taking into account the high proportion of jobs that are in the informal economy, and is subject to very rigid regulation. Expansion of the system has been seen as vital in order to improve the supply of skills to the rapidly expanding economy, and also to address issues of disparity in labour market participation and equity for certain groups in Indian society. The paper firstly explains how findings about apprenticeship systems from ten other countries, together with analysis of the Indian situation, were used to present options for consideration by the Indian government. It then analyses these options for their social justice and equity implications.
Part-time working by students : is it a policy issue, and for whom?
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Patton, Wendy
- Date: 2013
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Education and Work Vol. 26, no. 1 (2013), p. 48-76
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper uses data from interviews with representatives of national and state organisations that have a policy interest in student-working in Australia. The interviewees included representatives from employer bodies and trade unions as well as government organisations. The data are used to discuss these stakeholders' perceptions of the main advantages and disadvantages of working by young full-time students and the ways in which organisations in the business and educational sectors have adapted their policies and practices for student-working. The analysis is then used to inform a discussion about whether this is a legitimate area for public policy formulation and if so, what principles might underpin such policy and what some policies might look like. © 2013 Copyright Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Patton, Wendy
- Date: 2013
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Education and Work Vol. 26, no. 1 (2013), p. 48-76
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper uses data from interviews with representatives of national and state organisations that have a policy interest in student-working in Australia. The interviewees included representatives from employer bodies and trade unions as well as government organisations. The data are used to discuss these stakeholders' perceptions of the main advantages and disadvantages of working by young full-time students and the ways in which organisations in the business and educational sectors have adapted their policies and practices for student-working. The analysis is then used to inform a discussion about whether this is a legitimate area for public policy formulation and if so, what principles might underpin such policy and what some policies might look like. © 2013 Copyright Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.
Pre-apprenticeships in Australia : Differing orientations and their policy implications
- Authors: Dumbrell, Tom , Smith, Erica
- Date: 2013
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Vocational Education and Training Vol. 65, no. 2 (2013), p. 161-176
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: Little has been published in the Australian vocational education and training (VET) literature on the topic of pre-apprenticeships, which are a loose type of preparatory courses for apprenticeships available in some trades. Nevertheless, pre-apprenticeships have been in existence for several decades. With continuing concern over skill shortages in Australia, the research study on which this paper is based investigated the role of pre-apprenticeship courses in addressing skill shortages in the electrotechnology, automotive and engineering trades, some of the largest 'traditional trades' in Australia, and those with sizeable numbers in pre-apprenticeships. The principal objective of the overall study was to determine whether the use of pre-apprenticeships increased the size and suitability of the supply of entrants to the traditional apprenticeships and whether pre-apprenticeships do or might increase completion rates in apprenticeships. The paper uses findings from the study to develop a typology of pre-apprenticeship courses, proposing two fundamental orientations and discussing whether different orientations towards pre-apprenticeships are compatible with one another. © 2013 Copyright The Vocational Aspect of Education Ltd.
- Description: 2003011101
- Authors: Dumbrell, Tom , Smith, Erica
- Date: 2013
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Vocational Education and Training Vol. 65, no. 2 (2013), p. 161-176
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: Little has been published in the Australian vocational education and training (VET) literature on the topic of pre-apprenticeships, which are a loose type of preparatory courses for apprenticeships available in some trades. Nevertheless, pre-apprenticeships have been in existence for several decades. With continuing concern over skill shortages in Australia, the research study on which this paper is based investigated the role of pre-apprenticeship courses in addressing skill shortages in the electrotechnology, automotive and engineering trades, some of the largest 'traditional trades' in Australia, and those with sizeable numbers in pre-apprenticeships. The principal objective of the overall study was to determine whether the use of pre-apprenticeships increased the size and suitability of the supply of entrants to the traditional apprenticeships and whether pre-apprenticeships do or might increase completion rates in apprenticeships. The paper uses findings from the study to develop a typology of pre-apprenticeship courses, proposing two fundamental orientations and discussing whether different orientations towards pre-apprenticeships are compatible with one another. © 2013 Copyright The Vocational Aspect of Education Ltd.
- Description: 2003011101
Buying-out teaching for research : The views of academics and their managers
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Smith, Andy
- Date: 2012
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Higher Education Vol. 63, no. 4 (2012), p. 455-472
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper reports on the practice of buying-out teaching to create time for research. A study was carried out, at a regional university in Australia, with academics in receipt of research grant funds (and therefore with the means to buy out teaching), Heads of School, and the Deputy Vice Chancellors responsible respectively for research and for academic matters. We found that while eligible academics did buy out teaching by employing casual staff, most of them worried about the potential effects on teaching quality and students' learning. Heads of School were more sanguine about possible effects on teaching. Decision making by academics about whether to buy out teaching, and by Heads of School about whether to allow it in particular cases, took account of a number of factors. Some teaching activities were seen as higher-risk than others for buying-out. It was uniformly recognised by all parties that buying-out did not result in complete relief from the teaching activity that was bought out; a great deal of time and energy needed to be invested by the academic in making appropriate arrangements and monitoring the quality of work undertaken by the casual staff. The paper suggests that clearer policies need to be instituted in this area; academics were unsure what buying-out was allowed or acceptable, and would benefit from more discussion of the practice. © 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Smith, Andy
- Date: 2012
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Higher Education Vol. 63, no. 4 (2012), p. 455-472
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper reports on the practice of buying-out teaching to create time for research. A study was carried out, at a regional university in Australia, with academics in receipt of research grant funds (and therefore with the means to buy out teaching), Heads of School, and the Deputy Vice Chancellors responsible respectively for research and for academic matters. We found that while eligible academics did buy out teaching by employing casual staff, most of them worried about the potential effects on teaching quality and students' learning. Heads of School were more sanguine about possible effects on teaching. Decision making by academics about whether to buy out teaching, and by Heads of School about whether to allow it in particular cases, took account of a number of factors. Some teaching activities were seen as higher-risk than others for buying-out. It was uniformly recognised by all parties that buying-out did not result in complete relief from the teaching activity that was bought out; a great deal of time and energy needed to be invested by the academic in making appropriate arrangements and monitoring the quality of work undertaken by the casual staff. The paper suggests that clearer policies need to be instituted in this area; academics were unsure what buying-out was allowed or acceptable, and would benefit from more discussion of the practice. © 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
Getting in through the front door : The first hurdle of researching in companies
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2012
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training Research Vol. 10, no. 3 (2012), p. 153-163
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper examines what is arguably the most important issue in qualitative research - access to willing participants - specifically in the context of companies. This is of considerable importance in vocational education and training (VET) as workplaces are the site of much VET activity. While research textbooks discuss many issues in research, few address this topic explicitly or in depth. From those textbooks aimed at undergraduate students (e.g., Polonksy and Waller, 2005) to the more scholarly books such as the 'Sage Handbook of Organisational Research Methods' (Buchanan & Bryman, eds., 2009) there is scarcely a mention of the problem of gaining access to organisations. Yet access is the major hurdle for most researchers, particularly when researching in companies. Attempting to gain access is a lengthy and sometimes dispiriting activity with outcomes that are often satisficing rather than optimal. The paper, based on Australian researchers' experiences, reports on the difficulties of gaining access to suitable sites, and the ways in which access were gained, and reflects on the outcomes of the access process. This is undertaken partly through the author's self-reflection on her own experiences in carrying out three VET research projects during 2010, requiring access in total to 13 case study sites and 20 phone interview participants, and partly through email interviews with other VET researchers who have researched within companies during three recent years. © eContent Management Pty Ltd.
- Description: 2003010577
- Authors: Smith, Erica
- Date: 2012
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training Research Vol. 10, no. 3 (2012), p. 153-163
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper examines what is arguably the most important issue in qualitative research - access to willing participants - specifically in the context of companies. This is of considerable importance in vocational education and training (VET) as workplaces are the site of much VET activity. While research textbooks discuss many issues in research, few address this topic explicitly or in depth. From those textbooks aimed at undergraduate students (e.g., Polonksy and Waller, 2005) to the more scholarly books such as the 'Sage Handbook of Organisational Research Methods' (Buchanan & Bryman, eds., 2009) there is scarcely a mention of the problem of gaining access to organisations. Yet access is the major hurdle for most researchers, particularly when researching in companies. Attempting to gain access is a lengthy and sometimes dispiriting activity with outcomes that are often satisficing rather than optimal. The paper, based on Australian researchers' experiences, reports on the difficulties of gaining access to suitable sites, and the ways in which access were gained, and reflects on the outcomes of the access process. This is undertaken partly through the author's self-reflection on her own experiences in carrying out three VET research projects during 2010, requiring access in total to 13 case study sites and 20 phone interview participants, and partly through email interviews with other VET researchers who have researched within companies during three recent years. © eContent Management Pty Ltd.
- Description: 2003010577
How vocational education and training researchers use theory in their research
- Smith, Erica, Clayton, Berwyn
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Clayton, Berwyn
- Date: 2012
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training Research Vol. 10, no. 3 (2012), p. 251-258
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper is a preliminary investigation of the place that theory plays in vocational education and training (VET) research. Vocational education and training is an academic discipline, whose theory base has not previously been analysed in detail. The VET research community considers itself to be somewhat undervalued both by the broader education discipline in Australia and by some stakeholder bodies. Yet the community and its experienced researchers have a high reputation overseas. It could be that a better articulation of the theoretical framework within which we work, and the bodies of knowledge upon which we draw, may lead to a greater utilisation of our work by the broader scholarly community and, importantly, by relevant policy-makers. © eContent Management Pty Ltd.
- Description: 2003010685
- Authors: Smith, Erica , Clayton, Berwyn
- Date: 2012
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Training Research Vol. 10, no. 3 (2012), p. 251-258
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This paper is a preliminary investigation of the place that theory plays in vocational education and training (VET) research. Vocational education and training is an academic discipline, whose theory base has not previously been analysed in detail. The VET research community considers itself to be somewhat undervalued both by the broader education discipline in Australia and by some stakeholder bodies. Yet the community and its experienced researchers have a high reputation overseas. It could be that a better articulation of the theoretical framework within which we work, and the bodies of knowledge upon which we draw, may lead to a greater utilisation of our work by the broader scholarly community and, importantly, by relevant policy-makers. © eContent Management Pty Ltd.
- Description: 2003010685