Conflict and conservation : sharing the costs and benefits of tiger (Panthera tigris) conservation in communities adjacent to tiger reserves in Nepal
- Authors: Bhattarai, Babu
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Thesis , PhD
- Full Text:
- Description: Human wildlife conflict (HWC) is a highly studied but unresolved aspect of wildlife management. To further knowledge on HWC, this study used a multidisciplinary approach to investigate HWC implications for local people living adjacent to two key tiger conservation reserves in Nepal. The study also assessed the potential to redistribute financial benefits accruing from predator conservation to those bearing costs through associated HWC. Secondary data and anecdotal reports suggest that local people experience significant direct and indirect costs from predator conservation through livestock losses following attacks by common leopards and Bengal tigers, and additionally, crop losses due to their prey species plus two mega herbivores (elephant and one-horned rhinoceros). To investigate this situation, data regarding HWC incidents and costs were sourced through interviews with 422 local households, direct observations, and stakeholder interviews. Collected data included livestock loss (5-year time-period) and crop loss (1-year time-period). Complementary direct observation data collated livestock loss and crop damage for 12 months. Interviews were conducted also with park visitors (N=387) and tourism business owners (N=74). Results showed that tigers are involved in significantly fewer depredation events compared to leopards. Leopards predominantly killed small to medium livestock whereas tigers selected both small to medium and large sized livestock. Livestock depredation events occurred more frequently in livestock corrals relative to forest zones or crop fields. Rates of livestock losses per household per year self-reported during interviews with local people were found higher when compared to those observed by direct measurement. Prey species of tigers and leopards (most often wild boar and chital) were involved in more frequently in crop raiding events, and caused more crop damage, when compared that caused by mega herbivores. Quantities of crops lost per household were lowest in communities where effective physical barriers to wildlife were present. Park visitors and tourism business owners indicated willingness to pay for conservation of tigers and for compensation of farmers for the losses caused by tigers and their prey species. Study findings support several key recommendations proposed to mitigate negative HWC effects in the study area. These include financial support for local communities to build predator proof livestock corrals and establishment of effective physical barriers at the park borders. A dedicated tariff for park visitors and a levy for tourism business owners are also recommended to fund ongoing predator conservation and support financial compensation for local farmers affected by HWC.
- Description: Doctor of Philosophy
- Authors: Bhattarai, Babu
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Thesis , PhD
- Full Text:
- Description: Human wildlife conflict (HWC) is a highly studied but unresolved aspect of wildlife management. To further knowledge on HWC, this study used a multidisciplinary approach to investigate HWC implications for local people living adjacent to two key tiger conservation reserves in Nepal. The study also assessed the potential to redistribute financial benefits accruing from predator conservation to those bearing costs through associated HWC. Secondary data and anecdotal reports suggest that local people experience significant direct and indirect costs from predator conservation through livestock losses following attacks by common leopards and Bengal tigers, and additionally, crop losses due to their prey species plus two mega herbivores (elephant and one-horned rhinoceros). To investigate this situation, data regarding HWC incidents and costs were sourced through interviews with 422 local households, direct observations, and stakeholder interviews. Collected data included livestock loss (5-year time-period) and crop loss (1-year time-period). Complementary direct observation data collated livestock loss and crop damage for 12 months. Interviews were conducted also with park visitors (N=387) and tourism business owners (N=74). Results showed that tigers are involved in significantly fewer depredation events compared to leopards. Leopards predominantly killed small to medium livestock whereas tigers selected both small to medium and large sized livestock. Livestock depredation events occurred more frequently in livestock corrals relative to forest zones or crop fields. Rates of livestock losses per household per year self-reported during interviews with local people were found higher when compared to those observed by direct measurement. Prey species of tigers and leopards (most often wild boar and chital) were involved in more frequently in crop raiding events, and caused more crop damage, when compared that caused by mega herbivores. Quantities of crops lost per household were lowest in communities where effective physical barriers to wildlife were present. Park visitors and tourism business owners indicated willingness to pay for conservation of tigers and for compensation of farmers for the losses caused by tigers and their prey species. Study findings support several key recommendations proposed to mitigate negative HWC effects in the study area. These include financial support for local communities to build predator proof livestock corrals and establishment of effective physical barriers at the park borders. A dedicated tariff for park visitors and a levy for tourism business owners are also recommended to fund ongoing predator conservation and support financial compensation for local farmers affected by HWC.
- Description: Doctor of Philosophy
Vulnerability modelling and mitigation strategies for hybrid networks
- Authors: Ur-Rehman, Attiq
- Date: 2023
- Type: Text , Thesis , PhD
- Full Text:
- Description: Hybrid networks nowadays consist of traditional IT components, Internet of Things (IoT) and industrial control systems (ICS) nodes with varying characteristics, making them genuinely heterogeneous in nature. Historically evolving from traditional internet-enabled IT servers, hybrid networks allow organisations to strengthen cybersecurity, increase flexibility, improve efficiency, enhance reliability, boost remote connectivity and easy management. Though hybrid networks offer significant benefits from business and operational perspectives, this integration has increased the complexity and security challenges to all connected nodes. The IT servers of these hybrid networks are high-budget devices with tremendous processing power and significant storage capacity. In contrast, IoT nodes are low-cost devices with limited processing power and capacity. In addition, the ICS nodes are programmed for dedicated functions with the least interference. The available cybersecurity solutions for hybrid networks are either for specific node types or address particular weaknesses. Due to these distinct characteristics, these solutions may place other nodes in vulnerable positions. This study addresses this gap by proposing a comprehensive vulnerability modelling and mitigation strategy. This proposed solution equally applies to each node type of hybrid network while considering their unique characteristics. For this purpose, the industry-wide adoption of the Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS) has been extended to embed the distinct characteristics of each node type in a hybrid network. To embed IoT features, the ‘attack vectors’ and ‘attack complexity vectors’ are modified and another metric “human safety index”, is integrated in the ‘Base metric group’ of CVSS. In addition, the ICS related characteristics are included in the ‘Environmental metric group’ of CVSS. This metric group is further enhanced to reflect the node resilience capabilities when evaluating the vulnerability score. The resilience of a node is evaluated by analysing the complex relationship of numerous contributing cyber security factors and practices. The evolved CVSSR-IoT-ICS framework proposed in the thesis measures the given vulnerabilities by adopting the unique dynamics of each node. These vulnerability scores are then mapped in the attack tree to reveal the critical nodes and shortest path to the target node. The mitigating strategy framework suggests the most efficient mitigation strategy to counter vulnerabilities by examining the node’s functionality, its locality, centrality, criticality, cascading impacts, available resources, and performance thresholds. Various case studies were conducted to analyse and evaluate our proposed vulnerability modelling and mitigation strategies on realistic supply chain systems. These analyses and evaluations confirm that the proposed solutions are highly effective for modelling the vulnerabilities while the mitigation strategies reduce the risks in dynamic and resource-constrained environments. The unified vulnerability modelling of hybrid networks minimises ambiguities, reduces complexities and identifies hidden deficiencies. It also improves system reliability and performance of heterogeneous networks while at the same time gaining acceptance for a universal vulnerability modelling framework across the cyber industry. The contributions have been published in reputable journals and conferences.
- Description: Doctor of Philosophy
- Authors: Ur-Rehman, Attiq
- Date: 2023
- Type: Text , Thesis , PhD
- Full Text:
- Description: Hybrid networks nowadays consist of traditional IT components, Internet of Things (IoT) and industrial control systems (ICS) nodes with varying characteristics, making them genuinely heterogeneous in nature. Historically evolving from traditional internet-enabled IT servers, hybrid networks allow organisations to strengthen cybersecurity, increase flexibility, improve efficiency, enhance reliability, boost remote connectivity and easy management. Though hybrid networks offer significant benefits from business and operational perspectives, this integration has increased the complexity and security challenges to all connected nodes. The IT servers of these hybrid networks are high-budget devices with tremendous processing power and significant storage capacity. In contrast, IoT nodes are low-cost devices with limited processing power and capacity. In addition, the ICS nodes are programmed for dedicated functions with the least interference. The available cybersecurity solutions for hybrid networks are either for specific node types or address particular weaknesses. Due to these distinct characteristics, these solutions may place other nodes in vulnerable positions. This study addresses this gap by proposing a comprehensive vulnerability modelling and mitigation strategy. This proposed solution equally applies to each node type of hybrid network while considering their unique characteristics. For this purpose, the industry-wide adoption of the Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS) has been extended to embed the distinct characteristics of each node type in a hybrid network. To embed IoT features, the ‘attack vectors’ and ‘attack complexity vectors’ are modified and another metric “human safety index”, is integrated in the ‘Base metric group’ of CVSS. In addition, the ICS related characteristics are included in the ‘Environmental metric group’ of CVSS. This metric group is further enhanced to reflect the node resilience capabilities when evaluating the vulnerability score. The resilience of a node is evaluated by analysing the complex relationship of numerous contributing cyber security factors and practices. The evolved CVSSR-IoT-ICS framework proposed in the thesis measures the given vulnerabilities by adopting the unique dynamics of each node. These vulnerability scores are then mapped in the attack tree to reveal the critical nodes and shortest path to the target node. The mitigating strategy framework suggests the most efficient mitigation strategy to counter vulnerabilities by examining the node’s functionality, its locality, centrality, criticality, cascading impacts, available resources, and performance thresholds. Various case studies were conducted to analyse and evaluate our proposed vulnerability modelling and mitigation strategies on realistic supply chain systems. These analyses and evaluations confirm that the proposed solutions are highly effective for modelling the vulnerabilities while the mitigation strategies reduce the risks in dynamic and resource-constrained environments. The unified vulnerability modelling of hybrid networks minimises ambiguities, reduces complexities and identifies hidden deficiencies. It also improves system reliability and performance of heterogeneous networks while at the same time gaining acceptance for a universal vulnerability modelling framework across the cyber industry. The contributions have been published in reputable journals and conferences.
- Description: Doctor of Philosophy
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