Description:
Perceptual-cognitive skills and decision-making in sport have typically been explored using videobased protocols in settings where participants are not exposed to the type of competitive pressures that characterise a game situation. Consequently, this study aimed to investigate the influence of competitive pressure, or competitive anxiety, on decision-making accuracy. Seventy-seven (Male=44, Female=33) undergraduate students with mean age of 20.16 years (SD = 3.18) were randomly assigned to an experimental (n=56) or control group (n=21) and completed a video–based perceptual decision-making test of 25 temporally occluded offensive soccer plays. Participants in the experimental group completed the test with and without competitive pressure conditions. Pressure was manipulated by introducing a competition for a monetary prize. Participants in the control condition completed the test twice without competition. All participants completed a state anxiety measure prior to each test. The competition produced significantly higher cognitive anxiety than no competition; however, this was not reflected in any significant differences in decisionmaking accuracy. Although not statistically significant, more experienced performers tended to score more accurately with competitive pressure.
Description:
This study examined the use of imagery according to Paivio's (1985) general analytic framework. The aims were to examine functional differences in imagery use according to the five subscales of the SIQ, to investigate differences in imagery use by competitive level, and to explore the influence on the use of imagery of skills involving a perceptual target (reactive tasks) and without a perceptual target (nonreactive tasks). Participants included 484 individuals (280 male, 204 female), with a mean age of 20.39 (SD = 4.10) from the United Kingdom, Finland, and Australia. The group comprised 84 national, 210 state, 120 district, and 70 recreational level athletes representing 54 sports. Participants completed a demographic information sheet and the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ). Participants were classified according to competitive level and task type. Results indicated that overall participants used more motivational general-mastery imagery. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance revealed that there were significant differences among the four competitive levels on imagery use with the district level participants reporting significantly higher use of motivational general-arousal (MG-A) imagery than state and national level participants and national level participants reporting higher use of cognitive specific (CS) imagery than recreational level participants. There was also a significant difference between tasks with a perceptual target and tasks with no target for motivational-specific imagery, with higher scores for tasks with a perceptual target. The results suggest the continued evaluation of imagery use in relation to competitive level and support that task type may influence the functional use of imagery in sport.
Description:
Background: Physical educators are faced with trying to provide motivating and enjoyable experiences in physical education. Sport Education is an instructional model that aims to provide positive motivational sport experiences by simulating the features of authentic sport. Research support for Sport Education is positive, however, the effects on student motivation and the motivational climate are not well understood. Purpose: To investigate the influence of the Sport Education model on student motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, goal orientations, and perceived motivational climate) in secondary physical education. Setting: Six classes were selected according to teacher and class availability in the sports of soccer, hockey, and football codes in a co-educational government school. Participants: Participants were 115 (male = 97, female = 18) Year-8 students (aged 13-14 years), in a Sport Education condition (n = 41) and a Traditional condition (n = 74).Measures: At pre- and post-test, all participants completed three questionnaires: the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, and the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire. Intervention: Participants completed either a Sport Education condition or a Traditional condition for one double period (100 minutes) one day per week for 10 weeks (Sport Education condition) or for five weeks (Traditional condition). The Sport Education condition incorporated six distinctive features: seasons, affiliation, formal competition, record keeping, festivity, and a culminating event. The Traditional condition used whole-group instruction led by the teacher. Research design: The study used a non-equivalent control group design with pre- and post-test procedures. The independent variable was teaching condition and the dependent variable was student motivation (assessed by intrinsic motivation, goal orientations, and motivational climate). The groups were already established and selected for convenience purposes. Data collection and analysis: Participants completed pre-test measures and then participated in their pre-established classes. Post-test measures were completed in the last class in each condition. A reliability analysis on measures was conducted using Cronach's alphas. A pre-test manipulation check was performed to check for any initial differences in motivation. To compare the difference in changes between conditions on motivation, a series of 2 × 2 repeated measures analyses of variance were conducted. A comparison of the relationship between motivation measures was conducted using Pearson's product moment correlation coefficients. Findings: There was a significant difference between the conditions on changes in perceived competence, task orientation, and mastery climate, with the Traditional condition decreasing significantly from pre- to post-test compared with the Sport Education condition. There were no significant differences on interest/enjoyment, effort/importance, pressure/tension, ego orientation, or performance climate. A mastery climate was positively related to task orientation and intrinsic motivation and a performance climate was related to ego orientation. Conclusions: The Sport Education condition was more successful in maintaining high levels of intrinsic motivation, task orientation, and mastery climate than the Traditional condition. That is, the Traditional condition was associated with a decrease in adaptive aspects of motivation for students, whereas the Sport Education condition maintained existing levels of motivation.
Description:
Health benefits of children’s participation in physical activity such as reduced risk of obesity and diabetes are promoted to parents. However parents’ perceptions of injury risk in sports and how this perception may affect their choice of sport for their child is unknown. The study surveyed 5385 parents of children from 5 – 17 years in 46 sports. A total of 887 surveys were returned. The Health Belief model was the theoretical framework for the study and the sports were divided into four groups – contact, incidental collision, limited contact and non-contact. Mothers completed the forms in 63% of cases and 52.2% of the children were males. The child selected the sport in 51.6% of` cases and generally parents did not believe that their involvement in their child’s sport choice would ensure their child was safer from injury. In the main parents did not believe the sport their child participated in was less likely to cause injury than other sports and this trend increased as the level of contact increased. Trained coaches were seen as very important in reducing injury risk in sport. Generally modified sport was not seen to positively impact on the parent’s choice of sport and parents did not think that cost of protective equipment was a barrier to providing for their child. Parents generally felt that they could assess the risk of injury in a sport but were not influenced by the risk of injury when allowing their child to play a particular sport.
Description:
Children’s activity choices and patterns of activity in the after-school-hours period (between the end of school and dinner) can be important predictors of daily activity levels The Out of School Hours Sports Program (OSHSP) is a state-wide physical activity initiative that provides structured sporting experiences for children in formal out-of-school-hours care (OSHC) involving 17 State Sporting Associations (SSAs) and 70 OSHC services. Participants in the evaluation were 86 children (27 girls and 59 boys) and 86 parents, and 20 deliverers of the OSHSP at various OSHC services. The average age of the children was 7.7 years (SD = 1.6). Measures included surveys, focus groups, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis. The OSHSP initiative was evaluated over three years on four levels: reactions of the deliverers, advances in skills and knowledge, attitudes of the deliverers, and success of the initiatives against program objectives. The evaluation suggested that deliverers remained concerned about the requirements of delivering the initiative. Often deliverers did not modify their current practices to match the objectives of the OSHSP, possibly due to a clash between deliverer beliefs and program objectives. The children were having fun (97.5%) and learning new skills (89%). Most participants (76.7%) indicated an intention to continue their participation in the sport being delivered at the OSHSP into club sport participation. Children in the OSHSP were generally very active, with most (88%) already participating in sport outside the OSHSP suggesting that the target population may be difficult to access.
Description:
The after school hours time period is seen as a critical time for encouraging children between the ages of 5-7 to be active and play more sport. Often, existing age-appropriate junior sport programs represent a form of curriculum used in this time period. The curriculum in these programs is based on non-competitive, modified activities to minimise the risk of emotional harm to children and prepare them to play the mature form of the game. This paper uses Marsh and Willis' curriculum continuum to advocate an alternative perspective on addressing the needs of those children wishing to have rules and competition in the games they play as they participate in junior sports development programs. This perspective is supported by an analysis of two of the age-appropriate junior sport programs. Examples are drawn from the comments of Executive Officers, Program Officers, delivers, and parents. Key themes running through the comments were that some children were being discouraged from continued participation in sport due to the removal of competition and a feeling that they were not playing a version of the game they recognised.
Description:
The after school hours time period is seen as a critical time for encouraging children between the ages of 5-7 to be active and play more sport. Often, existing age-appropriate junior sport programs represent a form of curriculum used in this time period. The curriculum in these programs is based on non-competitive, modified activities to minimise the risk of emotional harm to children and prepare them to play the mature form of the game. This paper uses Marsh and Willis' curriculum continuum to advocate an alternative perspective on addressing the needs of those children wishing to have rules and competition in the games they play as they participate in junior sports development programs. This perspective is supported by an analysis of two of the age-appropriate junior sport programs. Examples are drawn from the comments of Executive Officers, Program Officers, delivers, and parents. Key themes running through the comments were that some children were being discouraged from continued participation in sport due to the removal of competition and a feeling that they were not playing a version of the game they recognised.
Description:
Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) are a part of the school curricula, yet many Australian primary-age children are not mastering FMS. One reason may be a lack of perceived self-efficacy of primary teachers to teach FMS. This study investigated the level of perceived self-efficacy of primary school teachers to teach FMS in Victoria, Australia. A cross-sectional survey, based on the Victorian Institute of Teaching Standards of Professional Practice, was used to sample sixty-five pre-service and forty-six in-service teachers. Most primary school teachers were self-efficacious in teaching FMS (67.59 per cent); almost one-third (32.41 per cent) were not. Male teachers had higher perceived self-efficacy than female teachers, and a positive relationship was found between perceived self-efficacy to teach FMS and interest in, and participation in, physical activity (r = 0.52 and r = 0.31 respectively). Implications for practice include providing FMS teaching resources and professional training. Further research should explore the effect of perceived self-efficacy on teaching performance.
Description:
Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) are a part of the school curricula, yet many Australian primary-age children are not mastering FMS. One reason may be a lack of perceived self-efficacy of primary teachers to teach FMS. This study investigated the level of perceived self-efficacy of primary school teachers to teach FMS in Victoria, Australia. A cross-sectional survey, based on the Victorian Institute of Teaching Standards of Professional Practice, was used to sample sixty-five pre-service and forty-six in-service teachers. Most primary school teachers were self-efficacious in teaching FMS (67.59 per cent); almost one-third (32.41 per cent) were not. Male teachers had higher perceived self-efficacy than female teachers, and a positive relationship was found between perceived self-efficacy to teach FMS and interest in, and participation in, physical activity (r = 0.52 and r = 0.31 respectively). Implications for practice include providing FMS teaching resources and professional training. Further research should explore the effect of perceived self-efficacy on teaching performance.
Description:
Children’s activity choices and patterns of activity in the after-school-hours period (between the end of school and dinner) can be important predictors of daily activity levels The Out of School Hours Sports Program (OSHSP) is a state-wide physical activity initiative that provides structured sporting experiences for children in formal out-of-school-hours care (OSHC) involving 17 State Sporting Associations (SSAs) and 70 OSHC services. Participants in the evaluation were 86 children (27 girls and 59 boys) and 86 parents, and 20 deliverers of the OSHSP at various OSHC services. The average age of the children was 7.7 years (SD = 1.6). Measures included surveys, focus groups, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis. The OSHSP initiative was evaluated over three years on four levels: reactions of the deliverers, advances in skills and knowledge, attitudes of the deliverers, and success of the initiatives against program objectives. The evaluation suggested that deliverers remained concerned about the requirements of delivering the initiative. Often deliverers did not modify their current practices to match the objectives of the OSHSP, possibly due to a clash between deliverer beliefs and program objectives. The children were having fun (97.5%) and learning new skills (89%). Most participants (76.7%) indicated an intention to continue their participation in the sport being delivered at the OSHSP into club sport participation. Children in the OSHSP were generally very active, with most (88%) already participating in sport outside the OSHSP suggesting that the target population may be difficult to access.
Description:
Introduction: This study examined the effect of yoga on the state anxiety and mood states of athletes. Yoga has long been practised by athletes but its influence on the mood state of athletes has not been empirically examined. Method: Participants were 15 female netball players, aged between 18 and 27 years (M = 20.97, SD = 3.09) who completed the Abbreviated Profile of Mood States (APOMS) and the state anxiety inventory (A-State) before and after each of six yoga or strength and conditioning sessions completed one night per week. Participants acted as their own controls with all participants completing both treatments. The main hypothesis was that yoga participants would report significantly greater changes in mood state and state anxiety than strength and conditioning participants. Results: A One-Way Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) indicated that yoga sessions had significantly greater pre to post test change on overall mood state and state anxiety compared to strength and conditioning sessions. In addition, on the subscales of the APOMS, yoga produced significantly greater pre to post test decreases on confusion and tension than strength and conditioning. Conclusion: Results support the use of yoga to positively enhance mood state and decrease state anxiety in athlete populations.Implications for coaches and athletes are discussed including the potential use of alternative and holistic training methods for the management of mood and anxiety. Future research directions are also discussed including investigating alternative approaches to the management of mood and anxiety in athletes and further investigation into the components of yoga.
Description:
Stereotypes and self-perceptions are important in understanding how people develop their self-knowledge and social identity, become members of groups, and view groups and their members. While we have some understanding of the stereotypical view of the physical education teacher, we currently have little knowledge of how physical education pre-service teachers (students studying a physical education degree) are stereotyped, and also if there is any relationship between these stereotypes and how physical education pre-service teachers perceive themselves. The purpose of this study was to examine the stereotypes and self-perceptions of physical education pre-service teachers. The aims were to describe how physical education pre-service teachers stereotype and perceive themselves, examine if there are differences in the stereotypes and self-perceptions between males and females, and to explore if there were relationships between what the physical education pre-service teachers believed stereotyped them and how they perceived themselves. Participants were 250 students (n=120 males, n=130 female) studying a 4-year Bachelor of Education (Physical Education) degree at a university who completed a questionnaire which contained 10 items about how they viewed physical education pre-service teachers (stereotypes), and 26 items on how they viewed male physical education pre-service teachers and female pre-service teachers (stereotypes) and 26 items on how they view themselves (selfperceptions). Factor analysis revealed 2 stereotype factors, which were labelled as Sociable (e.g., socialise, partying, drinking, loud and outgoing) and Health and Lifestyle (e.g., fit, playing sport and not smoking). The stereotype of the male physical education pre-service teacher, comprised two factors: physical, assertive and aggressive behaviour (e.g., aggressive, dominant, self-confident, and competitive) and physical and self-presentation factors (muscular, athletic, physically fit, physically coordinated, and attractive). The stereotype of female physical education pre-service teachers comprised three factors: physical appearance and ability (e.g., physically fit, athletic, able-bodied, attractive, thin, and physically coordinated), aggressive and assertive behavioural style (e.g., intimidating, unapproachable, and aggressive), and masculine behavioural style (e.g., aggressive, masculine, feminine, muscular and dominant). The self-perception of male physical education pre-service teachers comprised three factors: perceived appearance and ability (e.g., athletic, physical fit, thin, attractive, muscular and pleased with their body), aggressive and confident behaviour (e.g., intimidating, dominant, show off and aggressive) and independence and intellect (e.g., independent, ambitious, self confident and intelligent). The self-perception of female physical education pre-service teachers comprised three factors: strong willed behaviour (e.g., ambitious, and dominant), presentation and appearance (e.g., pleased with their body, attractive, thin and self confident), and aggressive and dominant behaviour (e.g., aggressive, intimidating, masculine and show off). There were significant relationships between the male physical and self-presentation stereotype factor stereotype and perceived appearance and ability self-perception factor and between the male physical, assertive and aggressive behaviour stereotype factor and the male aggressive and confident behaviours self-perception factor. For females, the aggressive and dominant behaviour stereotype was related to both the aggressive and assertive behavioural style self-perception factor and the masculine behavioural style self-perception factor. It is suggested that future studies investigate the stereotypes and self-perceptions of students in schools during the recruitment phase of socialisation, and the possible influence of the physical education teacher education programme, faculty leaders, and significant others on the physical education pre-service teachers' self-perceptions, stereotypes and soci lisation into physical education.
Description:
OBJECTIVES: To develop a valid and reliable video-based decision-making test to examine and monitor the decision-making performance of Australian football umpires. DESIGN: Validation assessments with test re-test reliability. METHODS: A video-based decision-making test was developed from a pool of 156 video-based decision-making situations. Australian football umpires (n=56) and players (n=45) participated in two separate phases of analysis. In phase one, players completed a test re-test reliability assessment with a 100 video-clips. Results indicated 24 clips were a reliable measure of decision-making performance. In phase two, umpires completed a test re-test protocol with 80 clips, 24 of which were the reliable clips identified by the player cohort in phase one. These 24 clips provided a measure of construct validity. Face and content validity were assessed by skill acquisition specialists, expert umpire coaches, and umpires. RESULTS: From each of phase one and two of the reliability assessment, 24 clips were found to have a kappa value greater than 0.30, providing a total of 48 reliable video-clips. Construct validity was supported, with the umpire group performing significantly better than the player group on the 24 clips presented to both groups on each testing occasion. Face and content validity were also demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS: This investigation demonstrated the ability prospectively to determine reliability and validity of the video-based decision-making test designed specifically for Australian football umpires. Establishing the validity and reliability of the video clips ensures future investigations can accurately and consistently measure the decision-making performance of Australian football umpires.