Validation of a follow-through developmental sequence for the overarm throw for force in university students
- Authors: Beseler, Bradley , Mesagno, Christopher , Spittle, Michael , Johnson, Nicola , Harvey, Jack , Talpey, Scott , Plumb, Mandy
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Motor Learning and Development Vol. 10, no. 2 (2022), p. 309-327
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- Description: Background: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of the follow-through on thrown ball velocity, potentially justifying inclusion of the follow-through in Roberton’s five critical components. Method: Seventy-eight University students participated in the overarm, dominant hand, throwing task, which involved throwing a standard tennis ball with maximum force three times. Each throw was filmed by two cameras placed behind and to the open side of the thrower to assess the throwing technique. The velocity of the throws was recorded with a radar gun. Results: Results indicated that, after accounting for the effects of gender, age, and throwing experience, there was a significant effect of follow-through level on throw velocity. Analysis of covariance also revealed a significant gender effect, with males throwing significantly faster than females. Results indicated the follow-through had the second largest impact on thrown ball velocity of all six components. Discussion: These findings provide preliminary support that the follow-through should be added to Roberton’s developmental levels. The inclusion of the follow-through component could assist teachers and coaches to facilitate learner and athlete development and could also improve the accuracy of throwing development assessment. © 2022 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Primary school teacher perceived self-efficacy to teach fundamental motor skills
- Authors: Callea, Micarl , Spittle, Michael , O'Meara, James , Casey, Meghan
- Date: 2008
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Research in Education Vol. , no. 79 (2008), p. 67-75
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- Description: Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) are a part of the school curricula, yet many Australian primary-age children are not mastering FMS. One reason may be a lack of perceived self-efficacy of primary teachers to teach FMS. This study investigated the level of perceived self-efficacy of primary school teachers to teach FMS in Victoria, Australia. A cross-sectional survey, based on the Victorian Institute of Teaching Standards of Professional Practice, was used to sample sixty-five pre-service and forty-six in-service teachers. Most primary school teachers were self-efficacious in teaching FMS (67.59 per cent); almost one-third (32.41 per cent) were not. Male teachers had higher perceived self-efficacy than female teachers, and a positive relationship was found between perceived self-efficacy to teach FMS and interest in, and participation in, physical activity (r = 0.52 and r = 0.31 respectively). Implications for practice include providing FMS teaching resources and professional training. Further research should explore the effect of perceived self-efficacy on teaching performance.
- Description: C1
Activity profiles of the Australian female netball team players during international competition: Implications for training practice
- Authors: Fox, Aaron , Spittle, Michael , Otago, Leonie , Saunders, Natalie
- Date: 2013
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Sports Sciences Vol. 31, no. 14 (2013), p. 1588-1595
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- Description: In elite sport, to remain competitive at the international level, it is critical to understand the game demands on players to ensure sport specific training programmes are designed for optimal athlete preparation and conditioning. In netball, recent research examining the activity patterns of players at the elite level is lacking, with only one study undertaken on this level of competition in the past 30 years. Therefore, the aim of this study was to provide coaches with up to date knowledge of player activity patterns as a basis for the design of optimal sport specific training programmes. The Australian female netball team were analysed using video footage of three international test matches. Player activity was categorised into five movement and eight game-based activities; and further classified as work or rest. Results suggest that differences in the current game exist when compared to the previous analysis. Positional differences were also found with regard to player activity confirming the need for an individualised component of training based on player position. © 2013 Copyright © 2013 Taylor & Francis.
- Description: C1
Developing a measure of imagery ability specific to exercise: The SIAM-E
- Authors: Gaskin, Cadeyrn , Morris, Tony , Watt, Anthony , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2005
- Type: Text , Conference paper
- Relation: Paper presented at the 11th World Congress of Sport Psychology, Sydney : 15th October, 2005
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- Description: E1
- Description: 2003001101
Injury and burnout in Australian athletes
- Authors: Grylls, Elizabeth , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2008
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol. 107, no. 3 (2008), p. 873-880
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- Description: The relationship between injury and burnout in a sample of 264 local to international Australian athletes (124 men and 140 women) was studied. Injury can be a stressful experience for athletes; coupled with the demands of rehabilitation, it could increase feelings of burnout. Experiencing more than one injury could have a cumulative effect on feelings of burnout. Alternatively, for some athletes the break from training or competing caused by an injury could alleviate burnout symptoms. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire and a modified version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Independent sample t tests indicated that currendy injured athletes (n = 150) had significandy lower mean Burnout scores than currendy uninjured athletes (n= 113). Small, but statistically significant, positive correlations were found between number of injuries and Burnout scores. Possible explanations are that injury provides a temporary break from intense sporting involvement and, thus, lower scores on Burnout, but multiple injuries might have a cumulative effect on burnout. © Perceptual and Motor Skills 2008.
A preliminary analysis of barriers, intentions, and attitudes towards moderate physical activity in women who are overweight
- Authors: Jewson, Elizabeth , Spittle, Michael , Casey, Meghan
- Date: 2008
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport Vol. 11, no. 6 (Nov 2008), p. 558-561
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- Description: Physical activity is important for the health of all individuals, however, the determinants of physical activity behaviour for women who are overweight remain largely unexplored. The purpose of this investigation was to explore a range of factors that influence participation in physical activity for a group of women who are overweight. Participants were 30 women, aged 25-71 years, with a mean age of 46.8 years (+12.95) and an average BMI of 31.2 kg/m(2) (+5.6). Self-reported level of physical activity, perceived barriers and facilitators of physical activity, attitudes, intentions and perceived behavioural. control to physical activity were measured. Seventeen participants were generally active, with self-reported moderate physical activity of 218.53 min (+/- 113.82) in the last 7 days; whereas 13 participants were reportedly less active 43.46 (+/- 42.98) min. Active participants were more likely to identify social reasons for participating in physical activity, while inactive participants perceived that their laziness prevented them from being physically active. There were no significant differences between active and inactive overweight women for attitude, intention or subjective norm for moderate-intensity physical activity. There was a significant difference between these women in perceived behavioural control (p = .014) for moderate-intensity physical activity, as women who felt more in control of their physical activity behaviour were more likely to engage in physical activity than inactive women. Future research should investigate interventions to increase behavioural control of moderate-intensity physical activity in women who are overweight. (c) 2007 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
- Description: C1
Effectiveness of 360° virtual reality and match broadcast video to improve decision-making skill
- Authors: Kittel, Aden , Larkin, Paul , Elsworthy, Nathan , Lindsay, Riki , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Science and medicine in football Vol. 4, no. 4 (2020), p. 255-262
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- Description: Video-based training is a commonly used method to develop decision-making in athletes and officials. This method typically uses match broadcast footage, yet technological advancements have made 360° Virtual Reality (360°VR) a possible effective tool to investigate. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of both 360°VR and match broadcast footage on improving decision-making. Amateur Australian football umpires (N= 32) participated in a randomised control trial. Participants completed a 5-week training intervention in either a 360°VR, match broadcast or control group. Decision-making was assessed at pre-training, 1-week post-training and 4-week retention points using reliable and valid 360°VR and match broadcast decision-making tests. Participants completed a short questionnaire detailing their perceptions of psychological fidelity, enjoyment, relevance, concentration and effort for each video mode. The 360°VR performed significantly better (p < 0.05) than the control group in the 360°VR retention test. No groups statistically improved over the intervention. Remaining pairwise comparisons for this test and the match broadcast test were not significantly different. 360°VR was rated significantly higher (p < 0.05) than match broadcast footage for psychological fidelity, enjoyment and relevance. 360°VR appears to be a beneficial training tool compared to a control, with stronger engagement from the participants than previously used match broadcast footage.
An overview of Australian exercise and sport science degrees
- Authors: Kittel, Aden , Stevens, Christopher , Lindsay, Riki , Spittle, Sharna , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2023
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Frontiers in Education Vol. 8, no. (2023), p.
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- Description: Exercise and Sport Science (EXSS) is a common degree offered at Australian universities, yet there is no systematic overview of this multidisciplinary field of study. This study aimed to determine the broad curriculum content of Australian EXSS degrees by summarizing the units offered, identify most commonly delivered content areas, and capture course information such as work-integrated learning (WIL) requirements and majors offered. Data were gathered through publicly available university course pages, with 30 EXSS courses included and only core units identified. The most common Australian EXSS units were “Exercise Physiology,” “Biomechanics,” “Research Methods and Data Analysis,” “Exercise Prescription and Delivery,” and “Exercise and Sport Psychology.” WIL requirements ranged from 140 to 300 h per course, and five courses offered majors. This study provides an overview of Australian EXSS courses, with the focus on exercise-related components reflecting accreditation requirements. Future research should examine how these courses equip students for the multidisciplinary EXSS industry. Copyright © 2023 Kittel, Stevens, Lindsay, Spittle and Spittle.
Amount of mental practice and performance of a simple motor task
- Authors: Kremer, Peter , Spittle, Michael , McNeil, Dominic , Shinners, Cassandra
- Date: 2009
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol. 109, no. 2 (2009), p. 347-356
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- Description: The effects of different amounts of mental practice on the performance of a motor skill were studied. Research supports the effectiveness of mental practice on performance; however, little is known about how much practice is needed and whether there is an optimal amount for these practice effects. Participants, 209 students ages 18 to 44 years (M=20.5, SD=2.9), completed a pre- and posttest of dart throwing with the nonpreferred hand. In the practice phase, participants completed either 25 (Mental Practice 25), 50 (Mental Practice 50), or 100 (Mental Practice 100) trials of the darts task or 50 trials of a catching task (Catching Task). Performance for all groups improved from pre- to posttest. Improvements for the three mental practice groups were greater than for the Catching Task group; however, there were no differences for the three Mental Practice groups. The findings support the positive effect of mental practice over a control condition and suggest that small amounts of mental practice may be sufficient for performance improvements, at least for a simple motor skill.
- Description: 2003008193
Assessment of decision-making performance and in-game physical exertion of Australian football umpires
- Authors: Larkin, Paul , O'Brien, Brendan , Mesagno, Christopher , Berry, Jason , Harvey, Jack , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2014
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Sports Sciences Vol. 32, no. 15 (2014), p. 1446-1453
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- Description: The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of in-game physical exertion on decision-making performance of Australian football umpires. Fifteen Australian football umpires (Mage = 36, s = 13.5 years; Mgames umpired = 235.2, s = 151.3) volunteered to participate in the study. During five competitive Australian football pre-season games, measures of in-game physical exertion (blood lactate levels, global positioning system [GPS]) and decision-making performance (video-based test) were obtained. There were no significant correlations between physical exertion in a particular quarter and decision-making performance in either the same quarter or any other quarter. Video-based decision-making performance was effected by time in game χ2(3) = 24.24, P = 0.001, with Quarter 4 performance significantly better than both Quarter 2 and Quarter 3. In-game physical exertion (blood lactate) significantly decreased over the course of the game χ2(3) = 11.58, P = 0.009. Results indicate no definable link between in-game physical exertion and decision-making performance. It is, however, presumed that decision-making performance may be affected by the time or context of the game. Future research is warranted to explore the relationship between physical exertion and decision-making performance to potentially inform Australian football umpire training programmes that replicate in-game physical and decision-making demands.
An evaluation of video-based training programs for perceptual-cognitive skill development. A systematic review of current sport-based knowledge
- Authors: Larkin, Paul , Mesagno, Christopher , Spittle, Michael , Berry, Jason
- Date: 2015
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Sport Psychology Vol. 46, no. 6 (2015), p. 555-586
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- Description: In this review we identified sport-based perceptual-cognitive training literature to systematically evaluate current video-based methodologies and their resultant effectiveness to improve perceptual-cognitive performance (i.e., decision-making). A comprehensive literature search of electronic databases from 1994-2013 was conducted to identify relevant studies. We identified 139 articles, of which 25 met all the inclusion criteria. Study design and test measures of the 25 articles were assessed against a classification scale to rate methodological quality. The methodological quality of the 25 studies varied, with quasi-experimental the most common design. Additionally, studies varied in the skill level of participants and the amount of video-based information presented during the training. We conclude that videobased training programs can be used to enhance perceptual-cognitive performance and outline several recommendations for future video-based perceptual-cognitive training programs particularly with respect to the validity and reliability of the instruments used to measure perceptual-cognitive performance.
Development of a valid and reliable video-based decision-making test for Australian football umpires
- Authors: Larkin, Paul , Mesagno, Christopher , Berry, Jason , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2014
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport Vol. 17, no. 5 (2014), p. 552-555
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- Description: OBJECTIVES: To develop a valid and reliable video-based decision-making test to examine and monitor the decision-making performance of Australian football umpires. DESIGN: Validation assessments with test re-test reliability. METHODS: A video-based decision-making test was developed from a pool of 156 video-based decision-making situations. Australian football umpires (n=56) and players (n=45) participated in two separate phases of analysis. In phase one, players completed a test re-test reliability assessment with a 100 video-clips. Results indicated 24 clips were a reliable measure of decision-making performance. In phase two, umpires completed a test re-test protocol with 80 clips, 24 of which were the reliable clips identified by the player cohort in phase one. These 24 clips provided a measure of construct validity. Face and content validity were assessed by skill acquisition specialists, expert umpire coaches, and umpires. RESULTS: From each of phase one and two of the reliability assessment, 24 clips were found to have a kappa value greater than 0.30, providing a total of 48 reliable video-clips. Construct validity was supported, with the umpire group performing significantly better than the player group on the 24 clips presented to both groups on each testing occasion. Face and content validity were also demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS: This investigation demonstrated the ability prospectively to determine reliability and validity of the video-based decision-making test designed specifically for Australian football umpires. Establishing the validity and reliability of the video clips ensures future investigations can accurately and consistently measure the decision-making performance of Australian football umpires.
Video-based training to improve perceptual-cognitive decision-making performance of Australian football umpires
- Authors: Larkin, Paul , Mesagno, Christopher , Berry, Jason , Spittle, Michael , Harvey, Jack
- Date: 2017
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Sports Sciences Vol. 36, no. 3 (2017), p. 239-246
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- Description: Decision-making is a central component of the in-game performance of Australian football umpires; however, current umpire training focuses largely on physiological development with decision-making skills development conducted via explicit lecture-style meetings with limited practice devoted to making actual decisions. Therefore, this study investigated the efficacy of a video-based training programme, aimed to provide a greater amount of contextualised visual experiences without explicit instruction, to improve decision-making skills of umpires. Australian football umpires (n = 52) were recruited from metropolitan and regional Division 1 competitions. Participants were randomly assigned to an intervention or control group and classified according to previous umpire game experience (i.e., experienced; less experienced). The intervention group completed a 12-week video-based decision-making training programme, with decision-making performance assessed at pre-training, and 1-week retention and 3-week retention periods. The control group did not complete any video-based training. Results indicated a significant Group (intervention; Control) x Test interaction (F(1, 100) = 3.98; P = 0.02, partial 2 = 0.074), with follow-up pairwise comparisons indicating significant within-group differences over time for the intervention group. In addition, decision-making performance of the less experienced umpires in the intervention group significantly improved (F(2, 40) = 5.03, P = 0.01, partial 2 = 0.201). Thus, video-based training programmes may be a viable adjunct to current training programmes to hasten decision-making development, especially for less experienced umpires.
Exploration of the perceptual-cognitive processes that contribute to in-game decision-making of Australian football umpires
- Authors: Larkin, Paul , Mesagno, Chrisopher , Berry, Jason , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2018
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology Vol. 16, no. 2 (2018), p. 112-124
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- Description: Decision-making is fundamental to officiating in all sports. It is well established in contemporary research that decision-making skills underpin umpire expertise; however, there is little understanding of the cognitive processes that contribute to in-game decision-making. This research implemented an in-depth case study approach, using qualitative methods, to explore the in-game decision-making process of three Australian football umpires. Concurrent and retrospective verbalisation methods were used to obtain verbal reports of the cognitive processes associated with decision-making. Findings identified three salient themes related to both in-game decision-making processes (i.e. decision evaluation, player intention during game-play) and umpire performance (i.e. knowledge of game-play). These themes contributed to the development of decision-making heuristics for Australian football umpires. This study provides initial evidence of the factors that may contribute to and/or affect in-game decision-making processes; however, additional exploration is necessary to further inform training programmes aimed to develop domain-specific decision-making skills and subsequent in-game performance. © 2016 International Society of Sport Psychology.
Effects of personalised motor imagery on the development of a complex weightlifting movement
- Authors: Lindsay, Riki , Oldham, Anthony , Drinkwater, Eric , Spittle, Michael , Storey, Adam
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International journal of sport and exercise psychology Vol. 20, no. 1 (2022), p. 57-78
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- Description: While recent research has indicated that personalised motor imagery (MI) interventions are beneficial to skill performance, little research has investigated the influence of personalised MI on performance of complex weightlifting movements. In addition, this research has rarely compared the efficacy of personalised scripts with instructor-generated scripts and has focused mainly on performance outcomes as opposed to examining the performance processes. A total of 16 individuals novice in the power clean were randomly allocated to one of two conditions: personalised MI, or instructor-generated MI. Participants engaged in a 6-week training intervention, completing three power clean sessions per week. Scripts were listened to five times each week. Results indicated no significant between-condition differences for total forward displacement at 1RM and 90% 1RM (both p = 0.27), but there was a significant difference at 80% of 1RM for total forward displacement between conditions (p = 0.04, g = −0.94). Differences between conditions for rearward displacement were not significant at any intensities (p = 0.54). No significant (p = 0.16-0.97) between-condition differences in kinetic variables were detected at any intensity over the 6-week training period. Findings indicate that the differences in script content do not influence the development of complex weightlifting movements. A large degree of variation was evident when observing the SD's of technical variables for each group which may have contributed to the present results. Future research should seek analysis techniques that allows for further investigation of movement variability and how this impacts the efficacy of personalised MI.
Motor imagery and action observation: A case for the integration of 360°VR
- Authors: Lindsay, Riki , Kittel, Aden , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Frontiers in Psychology Vol. 13, no. (2022), p. 880185-880185
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Considering the need for movement variability in motor imagery training : implications for sport and rehabilitation
- Authors: Lindsay, Riki , Spittle, Sharna , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2023
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Frontiers in Psychology Vol. 14, no. (2023), p.
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Mental imagery training programs for developing sport-specific motor skills: a systematic review and meta-analysis
- Authors: Lindsay, Riki , Larkin, Paul , Kittel, Aden , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2023
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Physical education and sport pedagogy Vol. 28, no. 4 (2023), p. 444-465
- Full Text: false
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- Description: Physical practice is the cornerstone of acquiring and developing movement skills in physical education and sport. However, research has suggested that psychological tools, such as mental imagery (MI), could effectively supplement a learner's physical practice schedule. MI is the mental simulation of a movement or situation in the absence of an overt physical output. Previous reviews have established the efficacy of MI for improving motor skills in sport. Further investigation, however, will help strengthen previous findings by focusing exclusively on studies that apply MI programs for the development of sport-specific motor skills. The purpose of this paper is to examine the overall effectiveness of MI programs for developing sport-specific motor skills and investigate program principles that may moderate the efficacy of MI programs, such as practice type, skill level, skill complexity, performance measures, duration, practice setting, and session frequency. By examining key program variables for MI, this review seeks to provide practical recommendations for physical educators and sports coaches on how they might effectively design and deliver a MI program to develop sport-specific motor skills. The review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. To provide practical recommendations for physical educators and sports coaches for effective MI programs, the following moderator variables were examined using subgroup analysis: (1) skill complexity, (2) skill level, (3) program duration, (4) session frequency, (5) MI practice type, and (6) practice context. The PEDro scale was used to assess study quality. The presence of publication bias was evaluated using the Trim and Fill method to calculate an adjusted and unbiased overall effect. The systematic review included 36 studies (n = 1449). A random-effects meta-analysis of standardised mean differences yielded an initial 135 individual effect sizes. A composite approach accounted for statistical dependence between effects and yielded 58 individual effects for further analysis. Analysis indicated that MI has a significant effect on performance (g = 0.476). Further analysis revealed significant effects on performance outcomes for MI combined with physical practice and MI alone (g = 0.579 and 0.298, respectively). Subgroup analyses revealed these beneficial effects be moderated by skill complexity, elements of skill performance, and MI delivery type. These results presented in our meta-analysis highlight the overall benefit of MI practice for developing sport-specific motor skills. However, there is a paucity of research on the effects of MI on complex skills and in physical education and sport coaching contexts. Although most studies presented in this review were conducted in controlled research settings, there are clear parallels between the skills practiced in these studies and those implemented in physical education and sport coaching. The efficacy of MI alone presents a potentially beneficial tool when physical practice is not possible or when physical training needs reduction (e.g. in-season sports competition). Therefore, it is encouraged that physical educators and sports coaches collaborate with sport psychology practitioners to investigate the efficacy of the several MI program variables presented in this review.
Reducing the fear of re-injury during rehabilitation through mental imagery as a mental health strategy in sport and exercise
- Authors: Lindsay, Riki , McNeil, Dominic , Spittle, Michael
- Date: 2023
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity Vol. 18, no. 1 (2023), p.
- Full Text: false
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- Description: Returning to sport and exercise following injury requires the athlete to become more confident in the ability to gradually explore the use of the injured area in increasingly complex and challenging ways. Emotional responses, such as fear of re-injury, are a key mental health barrier to a performer's return to sport and exercise. To navigate such psychological responses, performers need well-developed psychological strategies, like mental imagery (MI), to facilitate a successful return to pre-injury levels of sport and exercise. MI is a well-established strategy for dealing with negative symptoms associated with injury, providing a safe and less intimidating environment to practice movements that may be perceived as risky and otherwise performed within physical training due to the fear of causing further injury. This paper aims to provide sport psychologists with recommendations on how to utilize MI to reduce fear of re-injury during the rehabilitation process to successfully facilitate return to sport and exercise. Specific examples are also outlined and discussed. © 2023 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston.
Imagery training for reactive agility : performance improvements for decision time but not overall reactive agility
- Authors: McNeil, Dominic , Spittle, Michael , Mesagno, Christopher
- Date: 2019
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology Vol. , no. (2019), p. 1-17
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- Description: This study investigated the effects of imagery training on reactive agility and whether reacting to unpredictable stimuli could be improved using imagery. Forty-seven female athletes (Mage = 21.51, SD = 2.32) were randomly assigned to either a three-week physical training, imagery training, or control condition. Physical training condition involved physically rehearsing the reactive agility task, whereas the imagery training condition involved imagining the presenting stimulus and performing the reactive agility task. The control condition did no reactive agility training. A 3 (training conditions) x 7 (reactive agility performance components) mixed-model MANOVA was conducted to examine changes in reactive agility performance from the training interventions. Physical training improved decision time components and overall reactive agility performance. Imagery training improved Stimulus-Decision Time and Stimulus-Foot performance, but not overall reactive agility performance. No performance improvements occurred for the control condition. Findings support imagery use for the decision time variables associated with lightstimulus reactive agility performance. The lack of overall reactive performance improvement may indicate that imagery training is not effective for all components of perceptual-motor performance. Performance change inconsistencies appear to indicate that participants may not have generated unpredictable stimuli during imagery. Future investigation as to whether imagery improvements translate to sport-specific reactive tasks is needed.