Description:
There is evidence that eye protection, mouth guards, helmets, and face guards are effective in reducing the risk of facial injury; however, such safety practices are not adopted universally by all athletes playing high risk sports. Underlying beliefs about risk perception, comfort, ineffectiveness, utility, and a lack of awareness or enforcement have been identified as reasons people may not adopt preventive measures. There are several high-risk sports that have not mandated or do not enforce use of protective equipment. Valid evidence can assist with addressing the resistance caused by prevailing beliefs and could be essential in influencing rule changes.
Description:
Lower back pain is commonly associated with golfers. The study aimed: to determine whether thoracic- and lumbar-erector-spinae muscle display signs of muscular fatigue after completing a golf practice session, and to examine the effect of the completed practice session on club head speed, ball speed and absolute carry distance performance variables. Fourteen right-handed male golfers participated in the laboratory-based-study. Surface electromyography (EMG) data was collected from the lead and trail sides of the thoracic- and lumbar-erector-spinae muscle. Normalized root mean squared (RMS) EMG activation levels and performance variables for the golf swings were compared before and after the session. Fatigue was assessed using median frequency (MDF) and RMS during the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) performed before and after the session. No significant differences were observed in RMS thoracic- and lumbar-erector-spinae muscle activation levels during the five phases of the golf swing and performance variables before and after the session (p > .05). Significant changes were displayed in MDF and RMS in the lead lower lumbar and all trail regions of the erector-spinae muscle when comparing the MVC performed before and after the session (p < .05). Fatigue was evident in the trail side of the erector-spinae muscle after the session.
Description:
This study compared the progression of muscular strength (MS) adaptation between age-matched Caucasian (CAUC) and South Asian (SOU) men during 6 weeks (3x week-1) of resistance training. MS was determined pre and post intervention by 3-repetition maximum (3RM) strength tests, and data were analysed using repeated measures ANOVA. Pre-intervention upper and lower body 3RM were similar between groups and both upper and lower body 3RM increased in CAUCs (P < .001) and SOUs (P < .001) following resistance training. However, lower body strength adaptation (3RM) was higher in CAUCs compared with SOUs (P = .002). There was a significant group x time interaction in strength progression of the squat exercise (P = 0.03) from session 7 through to 18 (completion). The present study offers novel but provisional data that lower body strength adaptation is slower in SOU than CAUC men despite comparable adaptation to upper body strength.
Description:
BACKGROUND: To identify and prioritise targets for injury prevention efforts, injury incidence studies are widely reported. The accuracy and consistency in calculation and reporting of injury incidence is crucial. Many individuals experience more than one injury but multiple injuries are not consistently reported in sport injury incidence studies. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate current practice of how multiple injuries within individuals have been defined and reported in prospective, long-term, injury studies in team ball sports. DATA SOURCES: A systematic search of three online databases for articles published before 2016. STUDY SELECTION: Publications were included if (1) they collected prospective data on musculoskeletal injuries in individual participants; (2) the study duration was >1 consecutive calendar year/season; and (3) individuals were the unit of analysis. DATA EXTRACTION: Key study features were summarised, including definitions of injury, how multiple individual injuries were reported and results relating to multiple injuries. RESULTS: Of the 71 publications included, half did not specifically indicate multiple individual injuries; those that did were largely limited to reporting recurrent injuries. Eight studies reported the number/proportion of athletes with more than one injury, and 11 studies presented the mean/number of injuries per athlete. CONCLUSIONS: Despite it being relatively common to collect data on individuals across more than one season, the reporting of multiple injuries within individuals is much more limited. Ultimately, better addressing of multiple injuries will improve the accuracy of injury incidence studies and enable more precise targeting and monitoring of the effectiveness of preventive interventions.
Description:
BACKGROUND: To identify and prioritise targets for injury prevention efforts, injury incidence studies are widely reported. The accuracy and consistency in calculation and reporting of injury incidence is crucial. Many individuals experience more than one injury but multiple injuries are not consistently reported in sport injury incidence studies. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate current practice of how multiple injuries within individuals have been defined and reported in prospective, long-term, injury studies in team ball sports. DATA SOURCES: A systematic search of three online databases for articles published before 2016. STUDY SELECTION: Publications were included if (1) they collected prospective data on musculoskeletal injuries in individual participants; (2) the study duration was >1 consecutive calendar year/season; and (3) individuals were the unit of analysis. DATA EXTRACTION: Key study features were summarised, including definitions of injury, how multiple individual injuries were reported and results relating to multiple injuries. RESULTS: Of the 71 publications included, half did not specifically indicate multiple individual injuries; those that did were largely limited to reporting recurrent injuries. Eight studies reported the number/proportion of athletes with more than one injury, and 11 studies presented the mean/number of injuries per athlete. CONCLUSIONS: Despite it being relatively common to collect data on individuals across more than one season, the reporting of multiple injuries within individuals is much more limited. Ultimately, better addressing of multiple injuries will improve the accuracy of injury incidence studies and enable more precise targeting and monitoring of the effectiveness of preventive interventions.
Description:
This study investigated whether exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) resulted in changes to whole-body substrate utilisation during exercise performed during the subsequent 48 hours. Eight males (31±6 years) performed 30 minutes of bench-stepping exercise. One leg performed eccentric contractions (Ecc) by lowering the body whilst the control leg performed concentric contractions (Con) by raising the body. On the two days following bench-stepping exercise participants performed measures of muscle function on an isokinetic dynamometer and undertook a bout of one leg cycling exercise, at two differing workloads, with the first workload (WL1) at 1.5±0.25 W/kg and the second workload (WL2) at 1.8±0.25 W/kg with each leg. Expired respiratory gases were collected during cycling to estimate whole body substrate utilisation. There were significant decrements in measures of muscular performance (isometric force, concentric and eccentric torque) and increased perception of soreness in Ecc compared with Con (P < 0.05). The effect of the Ecc treatment on substrate utilisation during one-legged cycling revealed a significant trial×time interaction with higher rates of CHO oxidation in the Ecc condition compared with Con that were further increased 48 hours later (P = 0.02). A significant treatment×time×effort interaction (P < 0.01) indicated the effect of the treatment altered as workload increased with higher rates of CHO oxidation occurring in WL2. This is consistent with greater reliance upon muscle glycogen. Suggesting that in EIMD, reductions in strength and increased feelings of soreness can be associated with greater reliance upon intramuscular CHO oxidation, than lipid, during subsequent concentric work.
Description:
Facial injuries can pose a large health burden for athletes, potentially resulting in time loss and surgery. This article reviews the incidence, common mechanisms, and risk factors of facial injuries in several sports globally. Estimates of facial injury rates are complicated by a lack of, or inconsistent, reporting on specific types of injury. Much of the epidemiologic literature is based on hospital-based injury surveillance and there is a paucity of literature examining sport-specific risk factors. Future research should focus on prospective injury surveillance methodologies with consistent injury definitions examining risk factors and the effectiveness of facial injury prevention efforts.
Description:
Background Concussion is common in the sporting arena and is often challenging to diagnose. The development of wearable head impact measurement systems has enabled measurement of head kinematics in contact sports. Objectives The objective of this systematic review was to determine the characteristics of head kinematics measured by an accelerometer system among male athletes diagnosed with concussion. Methods A systematic search was conducted in July 2015. Inclusion criteria were English-language studies published after 1990 with a study population of male athletes, in any sport, where objectively measured biomechanical forces were reported in the setting of a concussive event. The random effects meta-analysis model was used to combine estimates of biomechanical force measurements in concussed athletes. Results Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria, the majority of which were conducted with high school and college football teams in the US. Included studies measured a combination of linear and rotational acceleration. The meta-analysed mean peak linear head acceleration associated with a concussive episode was 98.68 g (95 % CI 82.36-115.00) and mean peak rotational head acceleration was 5776.60 rads/s 2 (95 % CI 4583.53-6969.67). The estimates of the biomechanical forces were consistent across studies, with I 2 values of 0 % for both metaanalyses. Conclusions Head impact monitoring through accelerometery has been shown to be useful with regard to characterising the kinematic load to the head associated with concussion. Future research with improved clinical outcome measures and head kinematic data may improve accuracy when evaluating concussion, and may assist with both interpretation of biomechanical data and the development and utilisation of implementation strategies for the technology.
Description:
BACKGROUND: Testosterone, cortisol and their ratios may be indicators of anabolic status, but technical issues surrounding blood sampling has limited wider application. The advent of salivary testosterone (sal-T) analysis simplified sample acquisition, resulting in a subsequent rapid increase in the number of published research articles. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to undertake a meta-analysis to determine the effect of acute exercise bouts on post exercise sal-T and salivary cortisol (sal-C) concentrations and their ratio (sal-T:C). DATA SOURCES: Relevant databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct and SPORTDiscus were searched up to and including 31 December 2013 for the term 'saliva AND testosterone AND exercise'. STUDY SELECTION: Studies (n = 21) selected from the 933 identified included randomised controlled trials (RCTs; n = 2), uncontrolled trials (UCTs; n = 18) and control trials (CTs; n = 1), all of which had an exercise component characterised as either aerobic, resistance or power training, each with acute sal-T and sal-C measurement obtained within 30 min of exercise bout completion. STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS: A meta-analysis was conducted on change in sal-T, sal-C and the sal-T:C ratio following exercise using standard difference in means (SDM) and a random effects model. RESULTS: For aerobic, resistance and power exercise, the overall SDMs for sal-T were 0.891, 1.061 and 0.509, respectively; for sal-C, the SDMs were 3.041, 0.773 and 1.200, respectively. For sal-T:C, the SDMs were -2.014, 0.027 and -0.968, respectively. RCTs, UCTs and CTs were separated by subgroup analysis. There were significant differences in overall weighted SDM values for sal-T between RCTs, UCTs and CTs within exercise modes. When examining aerobic exercise interventions, a quantitative interaction of study design was observed. RCTs resulted in a greater SDM than UCTs (1.337 vs. 0.446). Power interventions displayed a qualitative interaction with study design. UCTs where baseline measures were obtained 24 h before exercise had an SDM of -1.128, whereas UCTs where baseline was determined immediately prior to exercise had an SDM of 0.486. The single CT trial had an SDM of 2.260. Resistance exercise interventions were primarily UCTs; however, an observed influence of baseline sampling time whereby immediately pre- and 24 h pre-exercise resulted in differing SDMs. The sole resistance exercise RCTs resulted in the greatest SDM (2.500). CONCLUSION: The current body of evidence regarding acute responses of sal-T to exercise is weak. This meta-analysis identifies varying exercise-dependent effect sizes. Each appear to be greatly influenced by study design and sample timing. There is a need for more RCTs and a standardised methodology for the measurement of salivary hormones in order to better determine the effect of exercise modality.
Description:
BACKGROUND: It is known that some people can, and do, sustain >1 injury over a playing season. However, there is currently little high-quality epidemiological evidence about the risk of, and relationships between, multiple and subsequent injuries. PURPOSE: To describe the subsequent injuries sustained by Australian Football League (AFL) players over 1 season, including their most common injury diagnoses. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: Within-player linked injury data on all date-ordered match-loss injuries sustained by AFL players during 1 full season were obtained. The total number of injuries per player was determined, and in those with >1 injury, the Subsequent Injury Classification (SIC) model was used to code all subsequent injuries based on their Orchard Sports Injury Classification System (OSICS) codes and the dates of injury. RESULTS: There were 860 newly recorded injuries in 543 players; 247 players (45.5%) sustained >/=1 subsequent injuries after an earlier injury, with 317 subsequent injuries (36.9% of all injuries) recorded overall. A subsequent injury generally occurred to a different body region and was therefore superficially unrelated to an index injury. However, 32.2% of all subsequent injuries were related to a previous injury in the same season. Hamstring injuries were the most common subsequent injury. The mean time between injuries decreased with an increasing number of subsequent injuries. CONCLUSION: When relationships between injuries are taken into account, there is a high level of subsequent (and multiple) injuries leading to missed games in an elite athlete group.
Description:
‘Serious leisure’ cycling has developed as a reinterpretation of the traditional form of the sport. This short term, informal, unstructured and unconventional conceptualisation represents a challenge to participant numbers in the mainstream sport. The purpose of this study was twofold: (i) to ascertain the cultural, subcultural and ecological factors of participation in this new conceptualised form enabling clubs, associations and governments to a deeper understanding about participants practices and (ii) as an ongoing validation to previous qualitative work (see O’Connor and Brown, 2005). This study reports on the development and psychometric properties (principal components analysis, confirmatory factor analysis) of the Cyclists’ Motivation Instrument. Four hundred and twenty two cyclists (371 males, 51 females) who were registered members of the state competitive cycling body completed a fifty-one item instrument. Five factors were identified: social, embodiment, self-presentation, exploring environments and physical health outcomes and these accounted for 47.2% of the variance. Factor alpha coefficients ranged from .63 to .88, overall scale reliability was .92, suggesting moderate to high reliability for each of the factors and the overall scale.
Description:
‘Serious leisure’ cycling has developed as a reinterpretation of the traditional form of the sport. This short term, informal, unstructured and unconventional conceptualisation represents a challenge to participant numbers in the mainstream sport. The purpose of this study was twofold: (i) to ascertain the cultural, subcultural and ecological factors of participation in this new conceptualised form enabling clubs, associations and governments to a deeper understanding about participants practices and (ii) as an ongoing validation to previous qualitative work (see O’Connor and Brown, 2005). This study reports on the development and psychometric properties (principal components analysis, confirmatory factor analysis) of the Cyclists’ Motivation Instrument. Four hundred and twenty two cyclists (371 males, 51 females) who were registered members of the state competitive cycling body completed a fifty-one item instrument. Five factors were identified: social, embodiment, self-presentation, exploring environments and physical health outcomes and these accounted for 47.2% of the variance. Factor alpha coefficients ranged from .63 to .88, overall scale reliability was .92, suggesting moderate to high reliability for each of the factors and the overall scale.
Description:
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of resistance training and long-term anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) administration on respiratory function. Subject groups consisted of AAS users (n = 9) who were still using AAS at time of testing (SU); AAS users (n = 6) who had been abstinent for > 3 months (SA), bodybuilding controls (n = 8) (BC), and (n = 8) sedentary male controls (SC). FEV(1), FVC, and PEF were measured. The results found that all subjects were within normal range, and there were no differences between groups. Maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP), and grip strength were both significantly greater in SU (P < 0.05) compared with SC; no significant difference was found between the other groups. Their MIP and grip strength was significantly correlated (r = 0.57; P < 0.05). The data from this study suggest that the combination of resistance training and AAS administration produce a significant increase in MIP in a cohort of long-term AAS users.
Description:
Objective: Scientific knowledge about symptoms of common mental disorders in elite sports is scarce. Consequently, the objectives of the study were to (i) establish the 12-month incidence of symptoms of common mental disorders (CMD; distress, anxiety/depression, sleep disturbance, adverse alcohol use, eating disorders) among Dutch elite athletes and (ii) explore their potential association with several stressors (being injured, recent life events, career dissatisfaction).Methods: A prospective cohort study with a 12-month follow-up period was conducted. The study used validated questionnaires to assess symptoms of common mental disorders (thus not clinically diagnosed) as well as several stressors; an electronic questionnaire was set up and repeatedly distributed.Results: A total of 203 elite athletes gave their written informed consent to participate in the study, from which 143 completed the 12-month follow-up period (follow-up rate of 70%). Incidence of symptoms of CMD ranged from 6% for adverse alcohol use to 57% for symptoms of anxiety/depression. Over the follow-up period, around 17% of the participants reported two simultaneous symptoms of CMD, and around 19% reported three simultaneous symptoms of CMD. Inferences between some stressors and symptoms of CMD were found but none of the associations were statistically significant.Conclusions: Substantial 12-month incidence rates of symptoms of CMD (self-reported and not clinically diagnosed) were found among Dutch elite athletes (especially for anxiety/depression), appearing similar to the ones found among athletes from other sports disciplines and the Dutch general population. Also, inferences between some stressors and symptoms of CMD were found but none of the associations were statistically significant. Supportive and preventive measures directed towards symptoms of CMD should be developed to improve awareness and psychological resilience of athletes, which would likely improve their performance and quality-of-life.
Description:
Objective: Scientific knowledge about symptoms of common mental disorders in elite sports is scarce. Consequently, the objectives of the study were to (i) establish the 12-month incidence of symptoms of common mental disorders (CMD; distress, anxiety/depression, sleep disturbance, adverse alcohol use, eating disorders) among Dutch elite athletes and (ii) explore their potential association with several stressors (being injured, recent life events, career dissatisfaction).Methods: A prospective cohort study with a 12-month follow-up period was conducted. The study used validated questionnaires to assess symptoms of common mental disorders (thus not clinically diagnosed) as well as several stressors; an electronic questionnaire was set up and repeatedly distributed.Results: A total of 203 elite athletes gave their written informed consent to participate in the study, from which 143 completed the 12-month follow-up period (follow-up rate of 70%). Incidence of symptoms of CMD ranged from 6% for adverse alcohol use to 57% for symptoms of anxiety/depression. Over the follow-up period, around 17% of the participants reported two simultaneous symptoms of CMD, and around 19% reported three simultaneous symptoms of CMD. Inferences between some stressors and symptoms of CMD were found but none of the associations were statistically significant.Conclusions: Substantial 12-month incidence rates of symptoms of CMD (self-reported and not clinically diagnosed) were found among Dutch elite athletes (especially for anxiety/depression), appearing similar to the ones found among athletes from other sports disciplines and the Dutch general population. Also, inferences between some stressors and symptoms of CMD were found but none of the associations were statistically significant. Supportive and preventive measures directed towards symptoms of CMD should be developed to improve awareness and psychological resilience of athletes, which would likely improve their performance and quality-of-life.
Description:
The present study examined the agreement between peak power output during a standard Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT) and a six second 'all-out' test on a Wattbike Pro. Nine males (40.7 +/- 19.4 yrs, 1.76 +/- 0.03 cm, 82.11 +/- 8.9 kg) underwent three testing protocols on separate days. The protocols consisted 30 second WAnT (WAnT30), a modified WAnT over 6 seconds (WAnT6) and a 6 second peak power test (PPT6). PPT6 was correlated with WAnT30 (r = 0.9; p < 0.001) with a mean bias of 105 W. PPT6 correlated with WAnT6 (r = 0.95; p < 0.001) with a mean bias of 74 W. WAnT6 correlated with WAnT30 (r = 0.99; p < 0.001) with a mean bias of 31 W. There was no difference in time to peak power between any trial. PPT6 resulted in significantly greater power outputs than in WAnT30 and WAnT6 (p < 0.001). We conclude that PPT6 and WAnT6 are valid measures of peak power output compared with WAnT30. This identifies that PPT6 and WAnT6 as short duration 'all-out' tests that have practical applications for researchers and coaches who wish to assess peak power output without the fatiguing effects associated with a standard WAnT.
Description:
This study examined the criterion validity of self-reported running-related injuries (RRI) by novice runners. Fifty-eight participants (41 females; age 46 ± 11 yrs) of the “Start-to-Run” program provided self-reports on their RRIs using an online questionnaire. Subsequently, they attended injury consultations with sports medicine physicians who provided physician-reports (blinded for the self-reports) as a reference standard. Self-reports and physician-reports included information on injury location (i.e., hip/groin, upper leg, knee, lower leg, and ankle/foot) and injury type (i.e., muscle-tendon unit, joint, ligament, or bone). Sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive values were 100% for all five injury locations. For injury type, sensitivity was low (66% for muscle-tendon unit, 50% for ligament, and 40% for bone) and lowest for joint injuries (17%). In conclusion, the validity of self-reported RRIs by novice runners is good for injury locations but not for injury types. In particular for joint injuries, the validity of novice runners’ self-reports is low. Abbreviations: RRI: Running Related Injury; SMC: Sports Medicine Centre; MTU: Muscle Tendon Unit; PPV: Positive Predictive Value.
Description:
Background: Accounting for subsequent injuries is critical for sports injury epidemiology. The subsequent injury categorisation (SIC-1.0) model was developed to create a framework for accurate categorisation of subsequent injuries but its operationalisation has been challenging. Objectives: The objective of this study was to update the subsequent injury categorisation (SIC-1.0 to SIC-2.0) model to improve its utility and application to sports injury datasets, and to test its applicability to a sports injury dataset. Methods: The SIC-1.0 model was expanded to include two levels of categorisation describing how previous injuries relate to subsequent events. A data-driven classification level was established containing eight discrete injury categories identifiable without clinical input. A sequential classification level that sub-categorised the data-driven categories according to their level of clinical relatedness has 16 distinct subsequent injury types. Manual and automated SIC-2.0 model categorisation were applied to a prospective injury dataset collected for elite rugby sevens players over a 2-year period. Absolute agreement between the two coding methods was assessed. Results: An automated script for automatic data-driven categorisation and a flowchart for manual coding were developed for the SIC-2.0 model. The SIC-2.0 model was applied to 246 injuries sustained by 55 players (median four injuries, range 1–12), 46 (83.6%) of whom experienced more than one injury. The majority of subsequent injuries (78.7%) were sustained to a different site and were of a different nature. Absolute agreement between the manual coding and automated statistical script category allocation was 100%. Conclusions: The updated SIC-2.0 model provides a simple flowchart and automated electronic script to allow both an accurate and efficient method of categorising subsequent injury data in sport.