Visual communication via the design of food and beverage packaging
- Spence, Charles, Van Doorn, George
- Authors: Spence, Charles , Van Doorn, George
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications Vol. 7, no. 1 (2022), p.
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: A rapidly growing body of empirical research has recently started to emerge highlighting the connotative and/or semiotic meanings that consumers typically associate with specific abstract visual design features, such as colours (either when presented individually or in combination), simple shapes/curvilinearity, and the orientation and relative position of those design elements on product packaging. While certain of our affective responses to such basic visual design features appear almost innate, the majority are likely established via the internalization of the statistical regularities of the food and beverage marketplace (i.e. as a result of associative learning), as in the case of round typeface and sweet-tasting products. Researchers continue to document the wide range of crossmodal correspondences that underpin the links between individual visual packaging design features and specific properties of food and drink products (such as their taste, flavour, or healthfulness), and the ways in which marketers are now capitalizing on such understanding to increase sales. This narrative review highlights the further research that is still needed to establish the connotative or symbolic/semiotic meaning(s) of particular combinations of design features (such as coloured stripes in a specific orientation), as opposed to individual cues in national food markets and also, increasingly, cross-culturally in the case of international brands. © 2022, The Author(s).
- Authors: Spence, Charles , Van Doorn, George
- Date: 2022
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications Vol. 7, no. 1 (2022), p.
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: A rapidly growing body of empirical research has recently started to emerge highlighting the connotative and/or semiotic meanings that consumers typically associate with specific abstract visual design features, such as colours (either when presented individually or in combination), simple shapes/curvilinearity, and the orientation and relative position of those design elements on product packaging. While certain of our affective responses to such basic visual design features appear almost innate, the majority are likely established via the internalization of the statistical regularities of the food and beverage marketplace (i.e. as a result of associative learning), as in the case of round typeface and sweet-tasting products. Researchers continue to document the wide range of crossmodal correspondences that underpin the links between individual visual packaging design features and specific properties of food and drink products (such as their taste, flavour, or healthfulness), and the ways in which marketers are now capitalizing on such understanding to increase sales. This narrative review highlights the further research that is still needed to establish the connotative or symbolic/semiotic meaning(s) of particular combinations of design features (such as coloured stripes in a specific orientation), as opposed to individual cues in national food markets and also, increasingly, cross-culturally in the case of international brands. © 2022, The Author(s).
Happy hour? A preliminary study of the effect of induced joviality and sadness on beer perception
- Desira, Beth, Watson, Shaun, Van Doorn, George, Timora, Justin, Spence, Charles
- Authors: Desira, Beth , Watson, Shaun , Van Doorn, George , Timora, Justin , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Beverages Vol. 6, no. 2 (2020), p. 1-14
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: Our emotions influence our perception. In order to determine whether emotion influences the perception of beer, 32 participants watched either a scene from the movie Wall-E to induce joviality, or a short clip from the Shawshank Redemption to induce sadness. The participants were then required to sample up to 250 mL of Yenda Pale Ale beer and rate it on a variety of taste and flavor characteristics (e.g., bitterness), before completing the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-X (PANAS-X). The data were analyzed using Bayesian t-tests and Null Hypothesis Significance Tests (NHSTs). After applying conservative corrections for multiple comparisons, NHSTs failed to reach statistical significance. However, the effect sizes suggested that inducing joviality, relative to inducing sadness, resulted in the beer being rated as (a) tasting more pleasant, (b) tasting sweeter, and (c) being of higher quality. Following the induction of joviality, participants were also willing to pay more for the beer. The Bayesian analyses indicated that induced emotion can influence flavor perception for complex taste stimuli. The effect sizes and Bayesian analyses are interpreted in terms of Feelings-as-Information theory. These preliminary findings can tentatively be applied to real-world environments such as venues that serve and/or market alcohol. © 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
- Description: Funding: This research was funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), grant number AH/L007053/1 awarded to C.S.
- Authors: Desira, Beth , Watson, Shaun , Van Doorn, George , Timora, Justin , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Beverages Vol. 6, no. 2 (2020), p. 1-14
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: Our emotions influence our perception. In order to determine whether emotion influences the perception of beer, 32 participants watched either a scene from the movie Wall-E to induce joviality, or a short clip from the Shawshank Redemption to induce sadness. The participants were then required to sample up to 250 mL of Yenda Pale Ale beer and rate it on a variety of taste and flavor characteristics (e.g., bitterness), before completing the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-X (PANAS-X). The data were analyzed using Bayesian t-tests and Null Hypothesis Significance Tests (NHSTs). After applying conservative corrections for multiple comparisons, NHSTs failed to reach statistical significance. However, the effect sizes suggested that inducing joviality, relative to inducing sadness, resulted in the beer being rated as (a) tasting more pleasant, (b) tasting sweeter, and (c) being of higher quality. Following the induction of joviality, participants were also willing to pay more for the beer. The Bayesian analyses indicated that induced emotion can influence flavor perception for complex taste stimuli. The effect sizes and Bayesian analyses are interpreted in terms of Feelings-as-Information theory. These preliminary findings can tentatively be applied to real-world environments such as venues that serve and/or market alcohol. © 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
- Description: Funding: This research was funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), grant number AH/L007053/1 awarded to C.S.
The influence of training and expertise on the multisensory perception of beer : a review
- Van Doorn, George, Watson, Shaun, Timora, Justin, Spence, Charles
- Authors: Van Doorn, George , Watson, Shaun , Timora, Justin , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Food Quality and Preference Vol. 79, no. (Jan 2020), p. 8
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This review critically evaluates the literature documenting the impact of training on people's percept ion of beer. In certain circumstances, training has been shown to improve people's ability to match and identify beers, and to discriminate between beers and between the distinctive attributes of beer. However, a reasonably consistent finding is that the benefits of beer training do not seem to generalise to novel beers (i.e., those not experienced during training). As such, training would appear to improve the capacity to label perception and/or people's recognition memory for beers, rather than necessarily influencing perception itself. Given how much beer is consumed annually, it is surprising that there has not been more published research into the role that training plays in this particular beverage category. Part of the reason for this may relate to (a) the limited role of experts in this field (e.g., primarily restricted to product testing and quality control; as compared to their much more prominent role in the world of wine), (b) the fact that training is an expensive and time-consuming process, and (c) it is wrongly assumed that the effects of training are similar across different beverage categories (e.g., beer and wine). We suggest that further efforts are therefore required before it will be possible to confidently conclude that training lowers the perceptual thresholds, and enhances the perceptual discrimination abilities, of beer experts above those of novices.
- Authors: Van Doorn, George , Watson, Shaun , Timora, Justin , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2020
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Food Quality and Preference Vol. 79, no. (Jan 2020), p. 8
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This review critically evaluates the literature documenting the impact of training on people's percept ion of beer. In certain circumstances, training has been shown to improve people's ability to match and identify beers, and to discriminate between beers and between the distinctive attributes of beer. However, a reasonably consistent finding is that the benefits of beer training do not seem to generalise to novel beers (i.e., those not experienced during training). As such, training would appear to improve the capacity to label perception and/or people's recognition memory for beers, rather than necessarily influencing perception itself. Given how much beer is consumed annually, it is surprising that there has not been more published research into the role that training plays in this particular beverage category. Part of the reason for this may relate to (a) the limited role of experts in this field (e.g., primarily restricted to product testing and quality control; as compared to their much more prominent role in the world of wine), (b) the fact that training is an expensive and time-consuming process, and (c) it is wrongly assumed that the effects of training are similar across different beverage categories (e.g., beer and wine). We suggest that further efforts are therefore required before it will be possible to confidently conclude that training lowers the perceptual thresholds, and enhances the perceptual discrimination abilities, of beer experts above those of novices.
The visual appearance of beer : A review concerning visually-determined expectations and their consequences for perception
- Van Doorn, George, Timora, Justin, Watson, Shaun, Moore, Chris, Spence, Charles
- Authors: Van Doorn, George , Timora, Justin , Watson, Shaun , Moore, Chris , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2019
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Food Research International Vol. 126, no. (2019), p.
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This review critically evaluates the literature concerning the impact of visual appearance cues (including colour, foam, and cloudiness) on people's perception in the beer category. The authors assess both the sensory expectations that are elicited by the visual appearance of beer, and the extent to which those expectations carry-over to influence the actual tasting experience. Beer is a particularly intriguing category to study since the differing production rules in different countries mean that there is not always the same scope to modify the colour in order to meet perceived consumer demands. What is more, there is currently disagreement in the literature concerning the impact of beer colour and foam on people's expectations of beer prior to tasting, and their multisensory flavour perception on tasting. Given how much beer is consumed annually, it is surprising that more research has not been published that assesses the undoubtedly important role of visual appearance in this beverage category. Part of the reason for this may simply be that it is difficult to create consistent experimental stimuli given the rapid transition of the head of the beer post-serving. © 2019 Elsevier Ltd
- Authors: Van Doorn, George , Timora, Justin , Watson, Shaun , Moore, Chris , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2019
- Type: Text , Journal article , Review
- Relation: Food Research International Vol. 126, no. (2019), p.
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: This review critically evaluates the literature concerning the impact of visual appearance cues (including colour, foam, and cloudiness) on people's perception in the beer category. The authors assess both the sensory expectations that are elicited by the visual appearance of beer, and the extent to which those expectations carry-over to influence the actual tasting experience. Beer is a particularly intriguing category to study since the differing production rules in different countries mean that there is not always the same scope to modify the colour in order to meet perceived consumer demands. What is more, there is currently disagreement in the literature concerning the impact of beer colour and foam on people's expectations of beer prior to tasting, and their multisensory flavour perception on tasting. Given how much beer is consumed annually, it is surprising that more research has not been published that assesses the undoubtedly important role of visual appearance in this beverage category. Part of the reason for this may simply be that it is difficult to create consistent experimental stimuli given the rapid transition of the head of the beer post-serving. © 2019 Elsevier Ltd
Does the shape of a cup influence coffee taste expectations? A cross-cultural, online study
- Van Doorn, George, Woods, Andy, Levitan, Carmel, Wan, Xiaoang, Velasco, Carlos, Bernal-Torres, Cesar, Spence, Charles
- Authors: Van Doorn, George , Woods, Andy , Levitan, Carmel , Wan, Xiaoang , Velasco, Carlos , Bernal-Torres, Cesar , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2017
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Food Quality and Preference Vol. 56, no. (2017), p. 201-211
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: We report a study designed to investigate whether shape-taste crossmodal correspondences would influence consumers’ expectations concerning coffee. To that end, we conducted a cross-cultural online survey with respondents (N = 309) from China, Colombia, and the United Kingdom (UK). The participants had to rate eight coffee mugs on eight scales by arranging the mugs within a 1000 × 250 pixel box, placing each mug so that its horizontal position matched how strongly they thought the mug matched the scale presented. Amongst other findings, the results revealed that (1) the coffee was expected to be more aromatic from narrower diameter mugs, (2) the coffee associated with shorter mugs was expected to be both more bitter and more intense, and (3) the coffee was expected to be sweeter from wider diameter mugs. An interesting cross-cultural finding was that participants from the UK expected the mugs to be hotter than participants from either China or Colombia. These results add to a large and growing body of research highlighting the associations between visual information and a product's likely (or expected) sensory qualities. These findings may be useful to those preparing coffee as they suggest that coffee should be presented in certain mugs in order to convey a message that is congruent with the consumer's expectations. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd
- Authors: Van Doorn, George , Woods, Andy , Levitan, Carmel , Wan, Xiaoang , Velasco, Carlos , Bernal-Torres, Cesar , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2017
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Food Quality and Preference Vol. 56, no. (2017), p. 201-211
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: We report a study designed to investigate whether shape-taste crossmodal correspondences would influence consumers’ expectations concerning coffee. To that end, we conducted a cross-cultural online survey with respondents (N = 309) from China, Colombia, and the United Kingdom (UK). The participants had to rate eight coffee mugs on eight scales by arranging the mugs within a 1000 × 250 pixel box, placing each mug so that its horizontal position matched how strongly they thought the mug matched the scale presented. Amongst other findings, the results revealed that (1) the coffee was expected to be more aromatic from narrower diameter mugs, (2) the coffee associated with shorter mugs was expected to be both more bitter and more intense, and (3) the coffee was expected to be sweeter from wider diameter mugs. An interesting cross-cultural finding was that participants from the UK expected the mugs to be hotter than participants from either China or Colombia. These results add to a large and growing body of research highlighting the associations between visual information and a product's likely (or expected) sensory qualities. These findings may be useful to those preparing coffee as they suggest that coffee should be presented in certain mugs in order to convey a message that is congruent with the consumer's expectations. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd
Does the shape of the drinking receptacle influence taste/flavour perception? A review
- Spence, Charles, Van Doorn, George
- Authors: Spence, Charles , Van Doorn, George
- Date: 2017
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Beverages Vol. 3, no. 3 (2017), p. 1-12
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: In this review, we summarize the latest evidence demonstrating that the shape and feel of the glassware (and other receptacles) that we drink from can influence our perception of the taste/flavour of the contents. Such results, traditionally obtained in the world of wine, have often been interpreted in terms of changes in physico-chemical properties (resulting from the retention, or generation, of specific volatile aromatic molecules), or the differing ways in which the shape of the glassware funnels the flow of the liquid across the tongue. It is, however, not always clear that any such physico-chemical differences do, in fact, lead to perceptible differences. Others, meanwhile, have stressed the importance of cultural factors, and the perceived appropriateness, or congruency, of the receptacle to the drink, based on prior experience. Here, though, we argue that there is also a much more fundamental association at work between shape properties and taste/flavour. In particular, the suggestion is made that the shape properties of the drinking receptacle (e.g., whether it be more rounded or angular) – regardless of whether the receptacle is seen, felt, or both – can prime certain expectations in the mind of the drinker. And, based on the theory of crossmodal correspondence, this priming is thought to accentuate certain aspects of the tasting experience, likely as a result of a taster’s attention being focused on the attributes that have been subtly primed.
- Authors: Spence, Charles , Van Doorn, George
- Date: 2017
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Beverages Vol. 3, no. 3 (2017), p. 1-12
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: In this review, we summarize the latest evidence demonstrating that the shape and feel of the glassware (and other receptacles) that we drink from can influence our perception of the taste/flavour of the contents. Such results, traditionally obtained in the world of wine, have often been interpreted in terms of changes in physico-chemical properties (resulting from the retention, or generation, of specific volatile aromatic molecules), or the differing ways in which the shape of the glassware funnels the flow of the liquid across the tongue. It is, however, not always clear that any such physico-chemical differences do, in fact, lead to perceptible differences. Others, meanwhile, have stressed the importance of cultural factors, and the perceived appropriateness, or congruency, of the receptacle to the drink, based on prior experience. Here, though, we argue that there is also a much more fundamental association at work between shape properties and taste/flavour. In particular, the suggestion is made that the shape properties of the drinking receptacle (e.g., whether it be more rounded or angular) – regardless of whether the receptacle is seen, felt, or both – can prime certain expectations in the mind of the drinker. And, based on the theory of crossmodal correspondence, this priming is thought to accentuate certain aspects of the tasting experience, likely as a result of a taster’s attention being focused on the attributes that have been subtly primed.
Colour-temperature correspondences : When reactions to thermal stimuli are influenced by colour
- Ho, Hsin-Ni, Van Doorn, George, Watanabe, Takahiro, Spence, Charles
- Authors: Ho, Hsin-Ni , Van Doorn, George , Watanabe, Takahiro , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2014
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: PLoS One Vol. 9, no. 3 (2014), p. e91854
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: In our daily lives, information concerning temperature is often provided by means of colour cues, with red typically being associated with warm/hot, and blue with cold. While such correspondences have been known about for many years, they have primarily been studied using subjective report measures. Here we examined this correspondence using two more objective response measures. First, we used the Implicit Association Test (IAT), a test designed to assess the strength of automatic associations between different concepts in a given individual. Second, we used a priming task that involved speeded target discrimination in order to assess whether priming colour or thermal information could invoke the crossmodal association. The results of the IAT confirmed that the association exists at the level of response selection, thus indicating that a participant's responses to colour or thermal stimuli are influenced by the colour-temperature correspondence. The results of the priming experiment revealed that priming a colour affected thermal discrimination reaction times (RTs), but thermal cues did not influence colour discrimination responses. These results may therefore provide important clues as to the level of processing at which such colour-temperature correspondences are represented.
- Authors: Ho, Hsin-Ni , Van Doorn, George , Watanabe, Takahiro , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2014
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: PLoS One Vol. 9, no. 3 (2014), p. e91854
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: In our daily lives, information concerning temperature is often provided by means of colour cues, with red typically being associated with warm/hot, and blue with cold. While such correspondences have been known about for many years, they have primarily been studied using subjective report measures. Here we examined this correspondence using two more objective response measures. First, we used the Implicit Association Test (IAT), a test designed to assess the strength of automatic associations between different concepts in a given individual. Second, we used a priming task that involved speeded target discrimination in order to assess whether priming colour or thermal information could invoke the crossmodal association. The results of the IAT confirmed that the association exists at the level of response selection, thus indicating that a participant's responses to colour or thermal stimuli are influenced by the colour-temperature correspondence. The results of the priming experiment revealed that priming a colour affected thermal discrimination reaction times (RTs), but thermal cues did not influence colour discrimination responses. These results may therefore provide important clues as to the level of processing at which such colour-temperature correspondences are represented.
Does the colour of the mug influence the taste of the coffee?
- Van Doorn, George, Wuillemin, Dianne, Spence, Charles
- Authors: Van Doorn, George , Wuillemin, Dianne , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2014
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Flavour Vol. 3, no. 10 (2014), p. 1-7
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: Background We investigated whether consumers’ perception of a café latte beverage would be influenced by the colour (transparent, white or blue) of the mug from which it was drunk. Results In experiment 1, the white mug enhanced the rated “intensity” of the coffee flavour relative to the transparent mug. However, given slight physical differences in the mugs used, a second experiment was conducted using identical glass mugs with coloured sleeves. Once again, the colour of the mug was shown to influence participants’ rating of the coffee. In particular, the coffee was rated as less sweet in the white mug as compared to the transparent and blue mugs. Conclusions Both experiments demonstrate that the colour of the mug affects people’s ratings of a hot beverage. Given that ratings associated with the transparent glass mug were not significantly different from those associated with the blue mug in either experiment, an explanation in terms of simultaneous contrast can be ruled out. However, it is possible that colour contrast between the mug and the coffee may have affected the perceived intensity/sweetness of the coffee. That is, the white mug may have influenced the perceived brownness of the coffee and this, in turn, may have influenced the perceived intensity (and sweetness) of the coffee. These results support the view that the colour of the mug should be considered by those serving coffee as it can influence the consumer’s multisensory coffee drinking experience. These results add to a large and growing body of research highlighting the influence of product-extrinsic colour on the multisensory perception of food and drink.
- Authors: Van Doorn, George , Wuillemin, Dianne , Spence, Charles
- Date: 2014
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Flavour Vol. 3, no. 10 (2014), p. 1-7
- Full Text:
- Reviewed:
- Description: Background We investigated whether consumers’ perception of a café latte beverage would be influenced by the colour (transparent, white or blue) of the mug from which it was drunk. Results In experiment 1, the white mug enhanced the rated “intensity” of the coffee flavour relative to the transparent mug. However, given slight physical differences in the mugs used, a second experiment was conducted using identical glass mugs with coloured sleeves. Once again, the colour of the mug was shown to influence participants’ rating of the coffee. In particular, the coffee was rated as less sweet in the white mug as compared to the transparent and blue mugs. Conclusions Both experiments demonstrate that the colour of the mug affects people’s ratings of a hot beverage. Given that ratings associated with the transparent glass mug were not significantly different from those associated with the blue mug in either experiment, an explanation in terms of simultaneous contrast can be ruled out. However, it is possible that colour contrast between the mug and the coffee may have affected the perceived intensity/sweetness of the coffee. That is, the white mug may have influenced the perceived brownness of the coffee and this, in turn, may have influenced the perceived intensity (and sweetness) of the coffee. These results support the view that the colour of the mug should be considered by those serving coffee as it can influence the consumer’s multisensory coffee drinking experience. These results add to a large and growing body of research highlighting the influence of product-extrinsic colour on the multisensory perception of food and drink.
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