An evaluation of the CAST program using a conceptual model of school-based implementation
- Authors: Corboy, Denise , McDonald, John
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Australian e-Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health Vol. 6, no. 1 (2007), p. 1-15
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- Description: Therapeutic prevention and/or early intervention programs for children at risk of developing disruptive behaviour disorders are increasingly being implemented in schools. One such Australian school-based program is CAST: CAMHS (Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service) and Schools Together, an evidenced-based program treating children with emerging disruptive behaviour disorders in the early primary school years. The current evaluation examines the process of implementation of the CAST program in primary schools. By using a conceptual model of school-based implementation (developed by Greenberg, Domitrovich, Graczyk & Zins, 2005) the wide array of factors that can affect successful implementation at the school level were identified, and those elements critical to implementation quality were examined. Semi-structured individual and group interviews were conducted with a sample of 69 school personnel across 16 schools in the City of Ballarat and wider Grampians region of Victoria, in both government and Catholic primary schools. Results showed that schools were highly satisfied with the quality of CAST resources and personnel, and the implementation and delivery of sessions as planned. Aspects that impacted negatively on the implementation process were the lack of parental engagement; the lack of classroom follow-up in some schools; the level of readiness and pre-planning by the schools; and the availability of technical support. Greenberg’s conceptual model appears to be a useful framework to utilise in examining the implementation of the CAST model, as it allowed close examination of how the program was implemented within naturally occurring constraints. It allowed the identification of elements within the CAST model and the associated support system that must be maintained and nurtured by the collaborating parties, in addition to the factors at a school level that are potential barriers to effective implementation. Identification and examination of such factors assist in ensuring quality outcomes for school-based interventions in the future.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003005834
Australian parent and teacher ratings of the DSM-IV ADHD symptoms: Differential symptom functioning and parent-teacher agreement and differences
- Authors: Gomez, Rapson
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Attention Disorders Vol. 11, no. 1 (2007), p. 17-27
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- Description: Objective: The aims of the study were to examine differential symptom functioning (DSF) and agreement across parent and teacher ratings for the DSM-IV ADHD inattention (IA) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI) symptoms, listed in the Disruptive Behavior Rating Scale (DBRS). Method: DSF was examined using a parametric technique involving ordinal logistic regression, and also a nonparametric technique known as kernel smoothing implemented in the program TestGraf. To accomplish the aims, Australian parents and teachers completed the DBRS for 213 children, between 6 and 11 years of age. Results: The results of both analytical procedures showed no DSF across all the IA and HI symptoms. Additional results indicated low parent-teacher agreement. Conclusion: The absence of DSF suggests that previous reports of low parent-teacher agreement are likely to reflect a true state of affairs and that parent and teacher ratings can be compared. In this context, the low parent-teacher agreement can be interpreted as indication that the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms are situation specific. (J. of Att. Dis. 2007; 11(1) 17-27) © 2007 Sage Publications.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003005732
Detection and management of eating disorders by general practitioners in regional Australia
- Authors: Boyd, Candice , Aisbett, Damon , Howard, Andrew , Filiades, Toula
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Australian e-Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health Vol. 6, no. 2 (2007), p.
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- Description: The aim of this study was to explore the prevalence of eating disorders in primary care in the Ballarat region and to highlight the role of GPs in the detection and management of eating disorders in regional Australia. We used anonymous data previously collated by the Ballarat and District Division of General Practice on the prevalence of eating disorders and patterns of referral of eating disorder patients among GPs in their Division. Over half of GPs surveyed indicated that they treat patients with eating disorders within their practice rather than referring patients to other services. In referring on, GPs were more likely to refer to mental health professionals and dietitians. A notable finding was that these regional GPs were more likely to refer to metropolitan specialist services than local hospitals if their patients required an admission. GPs in regional Australia do significant work to detect and manage patients with clinical eating disorders in the absence of locally-based, specialist services. In this context, we recommend the establishment of linkage partnerships between GPs and mental health practitioners to facilitate early intervention for rural and regional eating disorder patients. Further research into the current treatment practices of regional GPs is also needed to ascertain their specific training needs with respect to this patient population.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003005810
New advances in the scientific study of text comprehension
- Authors: Marmolejo-Ramos, Fernando
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Universitas Psychologica Vol. 6, no. 2 (2007), p. 331-343
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- Description: Text comprehension is a psychological activity that has attracted the interest of cognitive science for a long time, Nevertheless, just recently, neuroscientific studies have emerged in order to unveil the neural machinery behind this activity. This paper reviews some of the classical and, particularly, current works in cognitive science and new advances in the neuroscience of text comprehension. Later on, a potential neurocognitive model for text comprehension based on the core concepts of the cognitive and neuroscientific approaches is presented. This model preserves the predictions made by cognitive models as regards comprehension and the architecture of the new neuropsychological models as regards neurocognitive development. Finally, questions for future research in both domains and some general conclusions are offered.
- Description: C1
Predictors of social competence in young adolescents with craniofacial anomalies
- Authors: Shute, Rosalyn , McCarthy, Karen , Roberts, Rachel
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology Vol. 7, no. 3 (2007), p. 595-613
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- Description: This descriptive study shows the development and evaluation of a model of social competence in young adolescents with craniofacial anomalies. Craniofacial patients (N = 48, 11-14 years) completed the Social Anxiety Scale for Children, selected subscales of the Self-Perception Scale for Adolescents and the Social Support Scale for Children. Their parents completed the Child Behaviour Checklist. Facial disfigurement was independently rated. Multiple regression analyses suggested a revised model in which one aspect of social anxiety (social avoidance/distress) predicts social competence, with peer support as a mediator, while the other aspect of social anxiety (fear of negative evaluation) predicts social competence, with parental support as a mediator. Severity of facial disfigurement was not related to any psychological variable. While self-worth predicted social competence when considered alone, this relationship disappeared when the other variables were taken into account; self-worth remained closely associated with fear of negative evaluation. Although mean Child Behaviour Checklist scores were in the normal range, almost half the adolescents had psychological problems of clinical concern. The results suggest that young adolescents with craniofacial anomalies require psychological assessment regardless of degree of disfigurement. Interventions to reduce social anxiety and improve social support may be of particular value for promoting social competence. © International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003005750
Supportive-expressive group therapy for women with metastatic breast cancer : Survival and psychosocial outcome from a randomized controlled trial
- Authors: Kissane, David , Grabsch, Brenda , Clarke, David , Smith, Graeme , Love, Anthony , Bloch, Sidney , Snyder, Raymond , Li, Yuellin
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Psycho-Oncology Vol. 16, no. 4 (2007), p. 277-286
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- Description: Background: Mixed reports exist about the impact of supportive-expressive group therapy (SEGT) on survival. Methods: From 485 women with advanced breast cancer recruited between 1996-2002, 227 (47%) consented and were randomized within an average 10 months of cancer recurrence in a 2:1 ratio to intervention with 1 year or more of weekly SEGT plus three classes of relaxation therapy (147 women) or to control receiving three classes of relaxation therapy (80 women). The primary outcome was survival; psychosocial well-being was appraised secondarily. Analysis was by intention-to-treat. Results: SEGT did not prolong survival (median survival 24.0 months in SEGT and 18.3 in controls; univariate hazard ratio for death 0.92 [95% CI, 0.69-1.26]; multivariate hazard ratio, 1.06 [95% CI, 0.74-1.51]). Significant predictors of survival were treatment with chemotherapy and hormone therapy (p<0.001), visceral metastases (p<0.001) and advanced disease at first diagnosis (p<0.05). SEGT ameliorated and prevented new DSM-IV depressive disorders (p = 0.002), reduced hopeless-helplessness (p = 0.004), trauma symptoms (p = 0.04) and improved social functioning (p = 0.03). Conclusions: SEGT did not prolong survival. It improved quality of life, including treatment of and protection against depression. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003007261
Teacher responses to bullying in relation to moral orientation and seriousness of bullying
- Authors: Ellis, Alicia , Shute, Rosalyn
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: British Journal of Educational Psychology Vol. 77, no. 3 (2007), p. 649-663
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- Description: Background. Little research has focused on factors influencing teachers' decisions about whether and how to intervene in bullying incidents. Such factors have the potential to influence the role of teachers as agents in counteracting bullying. Aims. To examine: (a) whether moral orientation predicts teachers' responses to bullying, (b) the role of perceived seriousness of an incident in moderating responses to bullying and (c) factors that are important to teachers when deciding whether to intervene. Sample. Primary, middle and high school teachers (N = 127) were recruited during staff meetings at five schools. Methods. Moral orientation was measured using a modified version of Caputo's (2000) Sanctioning Voice Index (SVI); other questionnaires were specifically designed for this study. Correlational and hierarchical multiple regression analyses examining how moral orientation and seriousness predict teachers' responses to bullying were performed. Results. As anticipated, care moral orientation predicted a problem-solving response, while justice orientation predicted a rules-sanctions response. Care and justice orientations also interacted to predict rules-sanctions, but not problem-solving responses. However, seriousness of an incident accounted for the majority of variance (46% for rules-sanctions and 40% for problem-solving responses). Seriousness did not moderate the relationship between moral orientation and responses to bullying. Conclusions. While teachers' moral orientation does impact upon the kinds of responses to bullying they choose, seriousness of the incident is more important. However, seriousness as perceived by teachers may not be consistent with impact on students. Implications for teacher education and policy are discussed. © 2007 The British Psychological Society.
- Description: 2003005747
Testing gender differential item functioning for ordinal and binary scored parent rated ADHD symptoms
- Authors: Gomez, Rapson
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Personality and Individual Differences Vol. 42, no. 4 (2007), p. 733-742
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- Description: The study used the ordinal logistic regression method to examine gender differential item functioning (DIF) for ratings of the ADHD symptoms. This was examined for two different response scoring methods: ordinal and binary. Parents from the general community completed ratings for 742 and 733 primary school-aged girls and boys, respectively. Results indicate no gender DIF for all the ordinal scored inattention (IA) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI) symptoms, and all the binary scored IA symptoms. For the binary scored HI symptoms, there was DIF for one symptom, while DIF could not be computed for three symptoms. Overall, these findings suggest minimal gender DIF for the ADHD symptoms. The implications of the findings for the use of ADHD rating scales in clinical practice are discussed. © 2006.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003005741
The association of depression and sense of belonging with suicidal ideation among older adults : Applicability of resiliency models
- Authors: McLaren, Suzanne , Gomez, Rapson , Bailey, Maria , Vanderhorst, Renee
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior Vol. 37, no. 1 (2007), p. 89-102
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- Description: Suicide among older people, especially men, is a significant problem. In this study the applicability of the compensatory, the risk-protective, the challenge, and the protective-protective models of resiliency for the prediction of suicidal ideation from depression (the risk factor) and sense of belonging to the community (the protective factor) was investigated. A total of 351 retired Australians (130 males and 221 females), with a mean age of 71.31 years (SD = 7.99), completed the Zung Depression Scale, the suicide subscale of the General Health Questionnaire, and the Sense of Belonging Instrument. When sense of belonging (psychological) was the protective factor, results indicated support for the risk-protective model for men and women, and for the compensatory model for women only. In contrast, when sense of belonging (antecedents) was the protective factor, support was evident for the compensatory model for men and women, and for the challenge model for women only. Results indicate that interventions should be developed to enhance sense of belonging among aging adults. © 2007 The American Association of Suicidology.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003005765
The behavioural inhibition system and behavioural approach system (BIS/BAS) scales : Measurement and structural invariance across adults and adolescents
- Authors: Cooper, Andrew , Gomez, Rapson , Aucote, Helen
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Personality and Individual Differences Vol. 43, no. 2 (2007), p. 295-305
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- Description: Confirmatory factor analytic procedures were used to examine the factor structure of Carver and White's BIS/BAS Scales, and also its invariance across adults and adolescents. This measure, developed originally for adult use, has four scales: one for the Behavioural Inhibition System, and three for the Behavioural Approach System. To accomplish the aims, 631 adults and 300 adolescents completed the measure. The findings provided good support for the 4-factor structure, and for between-group invariance for the measurement (configural and metric) and structural (factor variances and covariances) models. These results mean that data obtained on the BIS/BAS Scales from early adolescents are directly comparable to scores from adults. © 2006 Elsevier.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003005420
The inter-relations of mother and father attachment, self-esteem and aggression during late adolescence
- Authors: Gomez, Rapson , McLaren, Suzanne
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Aggressive Behavior Vol. 33, no. 2 (2007), p. 160-169
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- Description: This study examined three models depicting the relations between mother and father attachment, self-esteem and aggression. A total of 385 participants (173 males and 212 females), aged from 18 to 20 years, completed self-rating questionnaires covering mother and father attachment, self-esteem and aggression. Results showed that self-esteem had additive and mediation effects on both the father attachment-aggression and mother attachment-aggression relationships, and also moderated the mother attachment-aggression relation. These findings are discussed in terms of different models for the inter-relations of mother and father attachment, self-esteem and aggression in late adolescence. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003005738
The paradox of teacher professional development programs for behaviour management : Comparing program satisfaction alongside changes in behaviour management practices
- Authors: Giallo, Rebecca , Hayes, Louise
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Australian Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology Vol. 7, no. (2007), p. 108-119
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- Description: A teacher professional development program using applied behavioural techniques was delivered to primary school teachers. Teachers (N=78) rated the program highly and reported improved knowledge and skills in managing disruptive student behaviour. Objective measures of teacher (n=32) pre- and post-workshop data revealed significant changes in teachers' use of positive strategies for female students. Change in teachers' use of punishment was in the expected direction, with insufficient power to produce statistical significance. Juxtaposed to high teacher self-reported satisfaction are objective pre and post data for a small group of very difficult students who showed no change in disruptive behaviour. This study found that teacher satisfaction ratings are a poor indicator of change in the classroom and argues that professional development for teachers must incorporate objective measures of child behaviour.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003005792
The role of coping, anxiety, and stress in depression post-acute coronary syndrome
- Authors: Di Benedetto, Mirella , Lindner, Helen , Hare, David , Kent, Stephen
- Date: 2007
- Type: Journal article
- Relation: Psychology, Health and Medicine Vol. 12, no. 4 (2007), p. 460-469
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- Description: Depressive symptoms are common and can affect prognosis following acute coronary symdromes (ACS). This study examined the psychological factors, coping, anxiety, and perceived stress associated with depression, following ACS. Psychological variables were assessed in 15 females and 66 males (M=57 years, SD = 12). Repeated measures at 2, 12, and 24 weeks post-ACS compared depression, anxiety, perceived stress, and coping resources as determined by the Cardiac Depression Scale, Beck Depression Inventory-II, State Trait Anxiety Inventory, Perceived Stress Scale, and Coping Resources Inventory. Depression, anxiety, and perceived stress remained high in the depressed group across time. Coping scores at 2 weeks post-ACS predicted depression scores at 24 weeks post-ACS. It appears that trait anxiety and coping resources are related to depressive symptoms post-ACS.
- Description: 2003005780
Understanding parental monitoring through analysis of monitoring episodes in context
- Authors: Hayes, Louise , Hudson, Alan , Matthews, Jan
- Date: 2007
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: International Journal of Behavioral and Consultation Therapy Vol. 3, no. 1 (2007), p. 96-108
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- Description: A model of monitoring interactions was proposed that is based on behavioural principles and places episodic parent-adolescent interactions at the centre of analysis for monitoring. The process-monitoring model contends that monitoring is an interactive process between parents and their adolescents, nested within a socialsetting. In the model it is proposed that monitoring occurs in discrete episodes that change over the course of adolescent development. To explain monitoring interactions it is essential to expand research to include a functional assessment of monitoring exchanges between parents and adolescents and to also measure thequality of parent-adolescent relationships, consider adolescent age and development, parental characteristics, and the context of the family.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003005786
A controlled trial of internet-based cognitive-behavioural therapy for panic disorder with face-to-face support from a general practitioner or email support from a psychologist
- Authors: Pier, Ciaran , Austin, David , Klein, Britt , Mitchell, Joanna , Schattner, Peter , Ciechomski, Lisa , Gilson, Kathryn , Pierce, David , Shandley, Kerrie , Wade, Victoria
- Date: 2008
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Mental Health in Family Medicine Vol. 5, no. 1 (2008), p. 28-29
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- Description: Background: Panic disorder (PD) is one of the most common anxiety disorders seen in general practice, but provision of evidence-based cognitive-behavioural treatment (CBT) is rare. Many Australian GPs are now trained to deliver focused psychological strategies, but in practice this is time consuming and costly. Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention (Panic Online) for the treatment of PD supported by general practitioner (GP)-delivered therapeutic assistance. Design: Panic Online supported by GP-delivered face-to-face therapy was compared to Panic Online supported by psychologist-delivered email therapy. Methods: Sixty-five people with a primary diagnosis of PD (78% of whom also had agoraphobia) completed 12 weeks of therapy using Panic Online and therapeutic assistance with his/her GP (n = 34) or a clinical psychologist (n = 31). The mean duration of PD for participants allocated to these groups was 59 months and 58 months, respectively. Participants completed a clinical diagnostic interview delivered by a psychologist via telephone and questionnaires to assess panic-related symptoms, before and after treatment. Results: The total attrition rate was 20%, with no group differences in attrition frequency. Both treatments led to significant improvements in panic attack frequency, depression, anxiety, stress, anxiety sensitivity and quality of life. There were no statistically significant differences in the two treatments on any of these measures, or in the frequency of participants with clinically significant PD at post assessment. Conclusions: When provided with accessible online treatment protocols, GPs trained to deliver focused psychological strategies can achieve patient outcomes comparable to efficacious treatments delivered by clinical psychologists. The findings of this research provide a model for how GPs may be assisted to provide evidence-based mental healthcare successfully. © 2008 Radcliffe Publishing.
A randomized controlled trial of a mother-infant or toddler parenting program : Demonstrating effectiveness in practice
- Authors: Hayes, Louise , Matthews, Jan , Copley, Alison , Welsh, Debra
- Date: 2008
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Journal of Pediatric Psychology Vol. 33, no. 5 (Jun 2008), p. 473-486
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- Description: Objective Describes outcomes of an intervention aimed to improve infant or toddler care and reduce parental distress.Methods A randomized controlled trial method was used with 118 mothers. Participants were allocated to an intervention group (n = 65) or an enhanced waitlist group (n = 53). Measures were taken at pre-, post-, and 6-weeks follow-up.Results Results demonstrated that mothers who attended the program reported improvement in depression, anxiety, stress, parental satisfaction, and decreases in problematic child behavior. Improvements were maintained at the 6-week follow up. Intention-to-treat analysis replicated the results, although with smaller effect sizes.Conclusions The results of this study demonstrate that delivery of a 1 day intervention for distressed mothers can contribute to lower levels of parental distress and child problem behavior. Given the importance of early motherchild relationships and the limited number of well-controlled studies on brief interventions this result is of significance to researchers and the service community.
- Description: C1
Attachment disorder, basic trust and educational psychology
- Authors: King, Michael , Newnham, Karyn
- Date: 2008
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Australian Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology Vol. 8, no. (2008), p. 27-35
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- Description: The label Attachment Disorder (AD) is used as either a description of a child's presentation, or as a diagnostic category. It is unclear whether this label is intended to be identical with the DSM-IV Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) diagnostic category, or if it is a separate diagnosis based on Randolph's Questionnaire and the premises underlying this instrument. The third option is that any allusion to "attachment" relates to a position which has evolved from Bowlby. All three variants of this diagnostic label allude to early parent-child interactions, and thus imply the need for remedial interventions at the parent-child level. There are limited options for such interventions at school. A more fruitful interpretation is that the inference of inadequate early childhood interactions designates an incomplete early psycho-social task (the development of Basic Trust) and this perspective leads towards credibly promising school-based interventions.
- Description: C1
Changing perception of average person's risk does not suffice to change perception of comparative risk
- Authors: Aucote, Helen , Gold, Ron
- Date: 2008
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Psychology, Health and Medicine Vol. 13, no. 4 (2008), p. 461-470
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- Description: The direct method of assessing "unrealistic optimisim" employs a question of the form, "Compared with the average person, what is the chance that event X will occur to you?" It has been proposed that when individuals construct their responses to this question (direct-estimates) they focus much more strongly on estimates of their own risk (self-estimates) than on estimates of the average person's risk (other-estimates). A challenge to this proposal comes from findings that interventions that alter other-estimates also change direct-estimates. Employing a novel intervention technique, we tested the possibility that such interventions may indirectly also change self-estimates and that this is what accounts for their effect on dierct-estimates. Study 1 (n = 58) showed that an intervention which was designed to (and did) affect other-estimates also affected self-estimates, while Study 2 (n = 101) showed that it affected direct-estimates. Study 3 (n = 79) confirmed that we could modify the intervention so as to maintain the effect on other-estimates, but eliminate that on self-estimates. Study 4 (n = 112) demonstrated that when this was done, there was no longer any effect on direct-estimates. The findings are consistent with the proposal that dierct-estimates are constructed largely just out of self-estimates. Implications for health education programs are discussed.
- Description: C1
- Description: 2003006767
Everyday victimization of adolescent girls by boys: Sexual harassment, bullying or aggression?
- Authors: Shute, Rosalyn , Owens, Larry , Slee, Phillip
- Date: 2008
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Sex Roles Vol. 58, no. 7-8 (2008), p. 477-489
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- Description: School-based sexual harassment of adolescent girls by boys appears commonplace, yet aggression and bullying studies rarely yield sexualized material. This qualitative Australian study with 72 14- to 15-year-olds and 7 teachers aimed to discover whether interviewer use of neutral language in gender-segregated focus groups and interviews would yield material indicating that the victimization of girls by boys is sexualized. Verbal and indirect victimization were reported to be everyday occurrences, and almost entirely sexual. Findings are discussed in the light of definitions of sexual harassment, bullying and aggression. It is concluded that the term "sexual bullying" appropriately captures the gendered power structure underlying these behaviors. As such, they need to be understood, and become visible, more broadly than in terms of individual pathology. © 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
- Description: C1
Global order : accommodating diversity in the 21st century
- Authors: Edmondson, Elizabeth
- Date: 2008
- Type: Text , Journal article
- Relation: Global Studies Journal Vol. 1, no. 2 (2008), p. 25-34
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- Description: The challenges arising from climate change consequences are likely to impact upon states and other international actors in ways that present new manifestations and dynamics of globalisation. Climate change issues are creating political, economic and social challenges for the international political community, key economic actors, and states, and seem set to alter many dimensions of human social organisation. In the 21st century, climate change is set to create unprecedented global challenges, highlighting inequities and inequalities in functional and material capabilities, and revealing more fully the limits of both domestic and international legal capacities. It is, therefore, timely to engage with some of the international political dimensions of global climate change, including the manner in which it raises new questions regarding the nature of rights and responsibilities and their distribution. There can be little doubt that climate change impacts would be experienced quite differently if the contemporary world was not characterised by global communication and knowledge sharing networks and complex patterns of internationalised trade, production and security. This paper examines the pressing imperatives of responding to climate change consequences by utilising these characteristics of 20th century globalisation to generate new and more effective means of accommodating diverse rights, responsibilities and interests.